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2020-12-25T08:43:56Z

Blank: /* Yang Chenting 杨晨婷 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲理散文的早期形式。其中的一般定理，不仅引用自经典著作，也是第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是当代散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中得到进一步发展，如，写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).
目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。重拾散文，我们就有了观点和社会历史等灿烂的源泉。
前现代散文文学所包含的内容远不止它最著名的例子--形式上受限制的包公文。鲁迅本人也有一些文章是用袋文体写的，但另一方面又把它当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样吸引人，令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 trans

2020-12-25T08:41:56Z

Blank: /* Zhang Hu 张虎 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲理散文的早期形式。其中的一般定理，不仅引用自经典著作，也是第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是当代散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中得到进一步发展，如，写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).
==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

History of Translation Studies 5

2020-12-21T11:59:03Z

Blank: /* 6. References */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Translation Thoughts=

==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation-李玉 Li Yu==

==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==

<center>林敏 Lin Min </center>
===Abstract===
Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significance of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauties principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.

===Key words===
Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty

===题目===
功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达

===摘要===
功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。

===关键词===
功能对等论，三美原则

===1. Introduction ===
With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose.

''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have tried to translate this prose, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating.

Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as a standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。

Here, this thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauties” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.

=== 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===
Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .

====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====
''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.（Han ,2018 ）

In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurrs to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wanders lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that "this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）."

====2.2 The Two English Versions ====
''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and is selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.（Chen ,2018）

===3. The Basis of Theory ===

====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====
The first scholar in history to propose the equivalence effect is the British translation theorist Alexander Fraser Tytler in 1790. He defined the “good translation” in his book ''A Brief Introduction to Translation Principles''. He introduced that the good translation should completely transfer the advantages of the original work to another language so that the target language readers could clearly understand and feel strongly as the original readers do. This is to say that a good translation should be able to produce the same effect as the original in different linguistic societies. Then, the German translation theorist Kaul called it a comparable effect in his book ''The Art of Translation'' in 1896.

Nida’s translation theory was formed in the 1960s and introduced to China in the 1980s. The functional equivalence principle is one of his central translation ideas. In 1964, Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Toward Science of Translating'', proposing to shift the focus of translation research from the attention of static text information to reader’s attention to the dynamic information of the text. In ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined this theory again. He proposed that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Here, the dynamic equivalence refers to the functional equivalence. The basic point of functional equivalence is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by readers with that of the recipient of the target text. It requires readers of the target text to be able to perceive the original text when understanding the translation.

====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====
Xu Yuanchong ,the highly respected translator and famous professor, is known as “the only person who translates Chinese poems into English and French”. He introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties”principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book ,he said that “the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem.”(Xu, 2003) Xu Yuanchong said that “in translation, the beauty in sense is the most important, beauty in sound comes next and the last is beauty in form, when it is difficult to achieve them all, translator should stress beauty in sense.”And professor Xu also claimed that the “Three Beauties” principles can use in researching and studying the translation of prose.(Xu, 2003)

===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===

Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze whether the two English versions of such prose achieve the degree of function equivalance.

====4.1 ====
Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:

Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)

Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.

However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point.

Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.

However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.

Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.

====4.2 ====
The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)
The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:

Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.

First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.

Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.

To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .

Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.

To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .

====4.3 ====
Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。”So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style? (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)

In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.

Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty.

The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.

Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.

All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form.

Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

“袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the ''OED'', which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.

Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .

===5. Conclusion===
We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.

Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.
--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 07:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Reference===
* Leech G N,(2001) Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.
* Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[''Overseas English'']. 2018.7
* Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian.韩征顺,王健. （2008）月朦胧,荷朦胧,雾蒙蒙,意浓浓——《荷塘月色》四译文“模糊美”研究. [A Study on the “Fuzzy Beauty” of the Four Translations of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''] .西安外国语大学学报.[ Journal of Xi’an International Studies University] 第16卷　第4期.Vol. 16 Issue 4
* Liu Huiqun.刘慧群(2015).《荷塘月色》修辞翻译管窥[ A Glimpse of Rhetorical Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 语文学刊 [''Chinese Journal'']外语教育教学[Foreign Language Education and Teaching ].2015年第10期. 2015, Issue 10
* Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲.(1978)毛泽东诗词四十二首.[Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong]. 洛阳：中国人民解放军外国语学院[Chinese People's Liberation Army Institute of Foreign Languages] 1978.
* Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang杨宪益，戴乃迭(1990,5). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. 英语学习[''English Learning''], 1990(5).
*Yuan Lei.袁雷.功能对等理论指导下的散文英译及三美分析——《荷塘月色》的两个英译本比较[ On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence]贵州师范大学.[Guizhou Normal University]
* Zhu Ziqing.朱自清(1927).荷塘月色[''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''].全日制普高高一语文第一册第 5 课.[General High School Chinese Book 1 Lesson 5],原载 1927年7月10日《小说月报》第18卷第7期[originally published in ''Novel Monthly''].北京：人民教育出版社[ Beijing: People’s Education Publishing Society]
* Zhu Chunshen.朱纯深(1992). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''.中国翻译.[''Chinese Translation'']. 1992, (1).--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Form and Spirit in Translation -文偲荇 Wen Sixing, 202020080649 亚非语言文学==
<center> 文偲荇 Wen Sixing </center>

===Abstract===
Both the form and the spirit should be pursued in translation, which is a dialectical relationship. However, in translation, it often loses its spirit because of various factors that lead to excessive pursuit of formal resemblance. It is very important to deal with the problem between the formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance in translation. While emphasizing the spiritual resemblance, do not forget the formal resemblance. If possible, try to achieve a balance between the two, and make a choice in the specific context. Only in this way can the translation realize the new unity of the form and content of the source language in the target language.

===Key words===
Formal resemblance; Spiritual resemblance; Form and Content; Dialectical unification

===题目===
论翻译中的形的贴合与神的韵味

===摘要===
翻译时应追求形神兼备，这两者是一种辨证关系，但在翻译时常常会因为各种因素导致过度追求形似而失去神韵。处理好翻译中形似与神似之间的问题至关重要。在强调神似的同时不要忘记形似，在可能的情况下尽量达成两者之间的平衡，而在特定的语境下也可做出取舍，才有利翻译在译入语中实现传达原语形式和内容新的统一。

===关键词===
神似与形似；形式与内容；辨证统一

===1. Introduction===

----
====1.1 Definition====
Formal resemblance means that when translating, the target text should be consistent with the original text in terms of words, sentence structure, expression and figurative means. And spiritual resemblance means that when translating, we should try to keep the spirit and charm of the original work and achieve the artistic effect of the original work.

"Form", in translation activities, is the most important refers to "language". And "deformation" is what we call "language transformation". From the source language to the target language, "deformation", that is, "language transformation", is inevitable. The change of sound and shape, as well as the combination of sound, shape and meaning should also be changed. And "spirit", to use the terminology of contemporary linguistics, refers to the product of "linguistic activities".

From the point of view recognized by the current translation circle, "spirit" refers to "meaning" to a large extent, but the problem lies in the definition of "meaning", and the linguistic field has not formed a unified view. In fact, many debates about "spirit" and "form" are more or less rooted in the understanding of "spirit" and "form".(Xu Jun 2003,01)

====1.2 Spiritual resemblance in Translation====
The spiritual resemblance is first put forward by Fu Lei. He said, "As far as effect is concerned, translation should be like painting. What is sought is not resemblance in form but resemblance in spirit." (Fu Lei, 1950). Zhu Shenghao also put forward the idea of "keeping the spirit of the original". He said, "The aim of the book is to preserve the spirit of the original as far as possible. Must be forced to seek the next, also must be clear and clear words, faithfully convey the meaning of the original; However, the hard translation with word-for-word contrast is not appreciated. "(Zhu Shenghao, 1954). “神”, means the spirit of the original. Good literary works always have rich feelings, profound artistic conception, strong appeal and strong artistic effect.

===2. The relationship between Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance===

====2.1 Correlation====
Yan Fu, said in ''Theory of natural selection'', "Three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expression and elegance". "Faithfulness" means that the meaning does not differ from the original text, that is, the translation should be accurate, not deviate, not omit, and not add or subtract meanings at will. "Expression" means not sticking to the original form, but making the translation smooth and clear; "Elegance" means that the words chosen in the translation should be appropriate and the article itself should be quaint and concise. In translation, it is difficult to be faithful to the ideological content of the original text. However, if you correctly understand the original text without "expressing" it in a smooth translation, it is equivalent to no translation. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on "expressing" at this time. Since then, the expression of translation has become the focus of translation studies.

Formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance is two different means of translating expression, question of "form" and "spirit" in translation also is one of the most discussed and most difficult fundamental issues to be unified. "The relationship between form and spirit, which directly reflects the relationship between signifier and signified, which is closely related to the means and ends of translation. The so-called means is the transformation of form, while the end is the rebirth of spirit." (Xu Jun 2003, 1). Fundamentally speaking, "form" and "spirit" are interdependent. No "form" means no "spirit".

However, the saying that "sprit follows form", which we often emphasize, gives form the primary character as the material basis for spirit's existence. "Form" is concrete, and the relationship between "form" and "spirit" involves every aspect of human life. The discussion about "body" and "soul" is, to a certain extent, a dispute about the relationship between "form" and "spirit". "soul" and "flesh" in religion, "substance" and "spirit" in philosophy, "form" and "content" in literature, etc, all originate from the fundamental problem of "form" and "spirit". "As far as translation is concerned, the question of "form" and "spirit" can be said to be an obvious paradox. The contradiction lies in the fact that "form" and "spirit" are interdependent and inseparable in nature, while the fundamental task of translation is to achieve the rebirth of "spirit" through "form" transformation". (Xu Jun 2003, 2)

====2.2 In translation, numerous factors may cause the Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance out of step====

=====2.2.1 Metaphors and Associations=====
Due to the different ways of expression in the two languages, the metaphors and associations used in SL(source language) are often unacceptable to TL(target language) readers, or TL readers cannot understand them at all. Or from the surface structure, target language is similar to source language said, but in the sense is not exactly the same, even lost a thousand miles. In this case, for example, the expression form of source language is still used in translation and try to be similar in appearance, which is bound to form a semblance, with similar appearance and spirit completely lost.

ex）"A man may break a word with you,sir,and words are but wind."(SL)

“先生，跟你说话的人可能会失言，而言语总会随风而逝。”(TL)

"Break a word with you" and "words are but wind" are all metaphors in English that may be difficult for non-native speakers to understand when translated.

ex）"The rain came down in long knitting needles."(SL)

“雨滴像长长的编织针一样落下。”(TL)

"Long knitting needles", is a special thing that exists in the context of a native speaker, so non-native speakers are likely to have no accurate concept of it, so it's hard to fully grasp the metaphor even with an honest translation.

=====2.2.2 The cultural differences=====
The translator and the author have different cultural backgrounds, so their understanding of the original text is naturally different. This difference in understanding is mainly due to the influence of preconceived notions. This is a pervasive cultural phenomenon.

ex）He is really the man in the moon(SL)

“他是个真正的月老”(TL)*

“他是个真正远离世俗的人”(TL)

In Britain, people traditionally think of the dark shadow of the moon as a person. The moon is far from the earth, the people in the moon of the nature, he must be unknown to the human world. So He is really a man in the moon means "He is really a man out of the world"(他是个真正远离世俗的人). Under the influence of traditional Chinese culture, once people see the image words "moon" and "man" combined together, they will naturally think of "Yuelao(月老)"——The legendary god of marriage, which leads to the deviation in translation. (Niu Chuangyue 2006, 215)

ex）He is always politically correct(SL)

他总是政治正确(TL)*

他说话四平八稳(TL)

Many people take this sentence that "He is always politically correct" as "He is always correct in politics", which is in line with the Chinese mindset, but it's not what it says. Politics in Chinese refer to principles of thought and ideology while in English politics refer to how they approach people. "He is always politically correct" is not "He is always correct in politics", but "He's smooth talking."

=====2.2.3 The context of languages changes=====
The surface layer of words, is a relatively fixed objective reality; And its deep, namely its connotation, but often because of the person's subjective will shift. For language learners and users, it is not difficult to get familiar with the surface, but to grasp the connotation of its continuous shift. To grasp the connotation of words is to analyze the actual meaning of users in a specific context, which is also known as "understanding" in translation. The change of context can be divided into subjective and objective. The so-called subjective change refers to the meaning given to words by users for certain needs; And the objective change is the change in meaning caused by the natural environment.

ex) Made in China(SL)

（由）中国制造(TL1)

（在）中国制造(TL2)

Made in China was, of course, “由中国制造”, before western multinationals entered the country. But when multinational companies enter China, the products they set up in factories in China are still marked "Made in China", but they are not “由中国制造” but “在中国制造”. Made in China, likewise, is different by circumstance, either “由中国制造” or “在中国制造”, of which its connotation is different. Therefore, when understanding the original text, it is not enough to just focus on the literal itself, More attention should be paid to the impact of changes in social history and context.

=====2.2.4 Human factors=====
"Language is a dog". It means that people are subject to language. In fact, this metaphor only illustrates one aspect of the relationship between man and language, namely, man's passive adaptation to language changes. Such passive adaptation certainly exists objectively. But a closer look reveals that the so-called passive adaptation is also due to some human factors rather than the powerful inertia of non-language itself.

On June 20, 2005 British farmers grow potatoes held a noisy protest in London, protesting the Oxford English dictionary, included the couch potato (refers to passive while sitting idly spend your leisure time, especially all day watching TV or DVD), think it said the potatoes too unhealthy, so strongly asked the Oxford English dictionary, delete the entry with couch slouch replace the couch potato.

This event vividly illustrates the human element of semantic change. Potato is originally a plant without any emotional factors, but it has been artificially given some kind of associative meaning. In a sense, of course, this is an expression of the richness of language, but this richness comes at the cost of deducing the actual meaning of specific concepts. If we compare documents from hundreds or thousands of years ago with the languages we speak today, we will find a general phenomenon that today's languages are much more complex and abstract than those of old. The reason is that we are constantly deducing the semantic meaning of specific concepts or words for various rhetorical purposes.

In the concrete application of language, such deduction exists objectively and is also the concrete manifestation of the normal function of language communication. However, in translation, the translator should try to avoid the appearance of such deduction and manifestation, or at least control it within a certain limit, which may lead to the semantic variation of the primitive concept in the translation. (Zhang Rui 2015, 117)

====2.3 Balance of Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance in Translation====
Of course, it is best to retain the original spirit in translation, but is form and spirit necessarily contradictory? The answer is clearly no. This is because sometimes formal resemblance is spiritual resemblance. The ideological content and emotional charm of a literary work must be expressed in a certain form. Sometimes the original text has some metaphors or associative images, vivid and lifelike, with strong appeal, the emotion and artistic conception appear on the paper, and the source language habits are also close to the target language. At this time, keeping the original form of the translation actually plays a role of spirit evocative. By keeping this form, the translation can achieve the unity of form and spirit.

ex) He was a friendly and very hospitable man.(SL)

他是个友善而又十分好客的人。/他为人友善，热情好客。(TL)

ex)Though somewhat pompous, he was an entertaining companion.(SL)

虽然有些浮夸，（仍不免承认）他是个娱人的伴侣。(TL)

ex)He was a man of good understanding and talents.(SL)

他为人通达而富有才情。(TL)

ex)There are people to do everything for money.(SL)

为了钱什么事情都有人做。/有些人为了钱无所不为。(TL)

The above examples show that, at some point, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance can achieve a harmonious unity. Proper formal equivalence not only helps to preserve the language style of the original text, but also enriches the expression form of the target language. Such expression can achieve both the form and the spirit of the target language, on the one hand, it can retain the form of the original language, on the other hand, it cannot lose its spirit.

====2.4 Choice====

=====2.4.1 The pursuit of spiritual resemblance first=====
But in more cases, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance cannot be both.In the translation of literary works, the pursuit of a similar-looking translation lacks vitality. It would be best if the two languages can have both formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance. However, due to great differences in thinking mode, cultural basis and language structure of the two languages, especially the target language and the source language belong to two different language families with great cultural differences, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the formal resemblance and the spiritual resemblance.

In this case, if the blind pursuit of form similarity, the pursuit of language structure, vocabulary, grammar and other aspects of equivalence, will make the translation stiff, obscure, difficult to understand. For example, in English-Chinese translation, translators with low proficiency are often unable to get rid of the linguistic structure and form of the original text, resulting in a large number of European languages appearing in the Chinese translation.

Professor King Shenghua, a famous Hong Kong translator, once criticized this Europeanized language and called it "translated style". "What is 'translated style' ?" she said, “The word 'translationese' in English. In the past, it has been called the "translation cavity." (King Shenghua, 2006). Which means the translation has a strange-sounding, and unbearable tone of European language. However, up to now, the "translation cavity" is no longer enough to describe this phenomenon, because the evolution so far has formed a style, which appears not only in the translation, but also in the daily life of writing, meeting and communication. This phenomenon is not conducive to the development of translation. From the following examples, you can see the awkwardness of pursuing only the form of translation.

ex)There was much traffic at night and many mules on the road with boxes of ammunition on each side of their pack—saddles and gray motor trucks that carried men, and other trucks with loads covered with canvas that moved slower in the traffic.(SL)

晚上交通甚繁，有许多骡子走过，鞍子驮着军火箱子，灰色的摩托货车装着人，此外，还有一些装货的货车，上面用帆布盖着，走起来慢一点。(TL)*

夜间，这里运输繁忙，路上有许多骡子，鞍子的两侧驮着弹药箱，灰色的卡车上坐满了士兵，还有一些辎重车辆，用帆布盖着，在路上慢慢的行驶着。(TL)

Boxes, motor trucks, and trucks were used to identify the “军火箱子”,“摩托货车”, and “装货的货车”, totally be loyal to the source language. But in literary translation, the translation needs to consider the specific context. The writing background of this article is the period of war, so the translator should also put these words in the specific writing background of war, i.e. the “弹药箱”, “卡车”, “辎重车辆” in the next translation. The translation here obviously violates the original meaning and is a kind of betrayal to the original text. However, this kind of betrayal is the result of the translator's proper re-creation after considering the writing background of the original text. That is to say, in the process of translation, the translator lays emphasis on the spiritual resemblance of the original text, and thus abandons the formal resemblance in part.

ex)“原始森林景区是一个最具自身特点的生态观光区。放眼沟畔，‘林涛万顷接天碧，幽谷百丈入地青’ 的峡谷奇观，总会让人长久驻足; 登上矗立于沟畔的望火楼极目远眺，会真切体验登临泰山那种‘会当凌绝顶，一览众山小’的感觉。”(SL)

“The scenic primitive forest, as an eco-tourism place of interest, possesses its distinctive style. No tourists will not take time to enjoy the canyon spectacle: the vast expense of trees choiring in the wind and the deep valley dressed in green stretches long and deep. When climbing up the fire-watching tower and gawking into the distance, tourist scan experience the sense: "I have now ascended the mountain's crest that dwarfs all peaks under my feet", just as standing on top of Mount Tai. ”(TL)

“Artistic creation originates from a different national (aesthetic standard). As for the translation of artistic conception, some uncertain factors, such as language structure, narrative method, aesthetic method and context creation, often make it difficult for the translation to realize the absolutely correct "equivalence". The implication of this is that contextual translation has a lot of arbitrariness (i.e., asymmetrical equivalence) and is often not limited to any theory. This arbitrariness is reflected in the inspiration generation and Aesthetic creation of the translator in the process of translation.

In other words, the translator is affected by the artistic conception of the original text, arouses infinite emotion and artistic conception, and naturally puts this feeling into the translation. The key lies in the expressiveness, that is, the fluency and accuracy of the narration, and the completion of the transformation from one kind of beauty to another. ” (Zhang Ju 2011, 76)

=====2.4.2 Formal resemblance first=====
The choice of formal resemblance is preferred, mostly in the case of neat alignment and elegant form. For example, the translation of Chinese couplets, or poems, such as antithetical couplets, is a very important form of text.In the translation of general text, content is the primary form. However, when translating poetry, both content and form must be paid equal attention to. For poetry, form is often an integral part of the content that cannot be divided.

ex)《芣苢》：“采采芣苢，薄言采之。采采芣苢，薄言有之。采采芣苢，薄言掇之。采采芣苢，薄言捋之。采采芣苢，薄言袺之。采采芣苢，薄言襭之。”(SL)

Gathering plantain, Here we go plucking it; Gathering plantain, Here we go picking it. Gathering plantain, Quick fingers strip it; Gathering plantain, By handfuls pull it. Gathering plantain, Here we fill skirts with it; Gathering plantain, Belt up full skirts. (translated by Yang Xianyi)(TL)

ex)You say that you love rain, but you open your umbrella when it rains...
You say that you love the sun, but you find a shadow spot when the sun shines...
You say that you love the wind, But you close your windows when wind blows...
This is why I am afraid; You say that you love me too...(SL)

你说烟雨微芒，兰亭远望；后来轻揽婆娑，深遮霓裳。
你说春光烂漫，绿袖红香；后来内掩西楼，静立卿旁。
你说软风轻拂，醉卧思量；后来紧掩门窗，漫帐成殇。
你说情丝柔肠，如何相忘；我却眼波微转，兀自成霜。(TL)

It can be seen that in order to maintain the evenness and the artistic conception of the poem, many images and function words that were not in the original text were added in the translation. Thus it can be seen that it is of course ideal to achieve spiritual resemblance in translation, but it is also a choice to achieve formal resemblance. As long as it conveys the connotation of the original text and achieves functional equivalence, it should be regarded as a success.

===3. Discussion on Form and Spirit===
It should be noted that in the history of translation, the thinking about "form" and "spirit" has been going on almost all the time. In the 20th century, there have been many heated discussions about "form" and "spirit" in Chinese literary translation, and the focus of the discussions is mainly on whether translation should seek formal resemblance or spiritual resemblance. On the surface, it does not seem to be a problem whether the translation should seek resemblance in form or in spirit, because seeking resemblance is not and should not be the purpose of translation.

“However, those who advocate formal resemblance believe that only by seeking formal resemblance first can the spiritual resemblance be guaranteed. But the school that advocates spiritual resemblance thinks, shape resemblance is hard to find, can rely on spiritual resemblance only. The former pursues the first appearance and then spirit, and "both form and spirit" is the best realm; The latter takes "spiritual resemblance" as the only pursuit, and clearly puts forward that "what the translation seeks for is not in appearance but in spiritual resemblance". Due to the difference in emphasis between the formal resemblance school and the spiritual resemblance school, there are also differences in translation methods. The former advocates literal translation while the latter advocates free translation.” (Xu Jun 2003, 02)

The discussion of form and spirit in translation can be traced back to Mao Dun's article "Responsibility and Efforts of New Literature Researchers", published in ''Fiction Monthly'' (1921), in which he proposed that "the most important artistic color of a literary work is the spirit of the work. Chen Xiying also published "on Translation" in ''New Moon''(1929), proposing the theory of sculpture and painting. He pointed out that "translation is the same as painting, of course, imitation is the most important. But the imitation art of a original painting uses the same brush color, while the original text of a book and the translated text use very different languages. Due to different tools, the methods vary greatly." (Chen Xiying,1921). Chen also divides translation into three levels, formal resemblance, meaning resemblance and spiritual resemblance. Chen's "Three Levels" theory is similar to Zhu Shenghao's "Three Levels": (spirit, interest and charm, and rigid translation) theory in translation of Shakespeare's plays.

Xu Yuanchong, a famous translator and professor of Peking University, also put forward the theory of "three likings", based on his own experience in poetry translation. In the ''Art of Translation'', he thought that in order to convey the beauty of meaning, sound and form of poetry, the degree of meaning resemblance, sound resemblance and shape resemblance in the translation can be changed. Jiang Feng, a translator, pursues resemblance in form followed by resemblance in spirit. He said in the afterword of translation of ''Selected Shelley poems'' that in translating poems, one should strive to be alike in form and spirit, because spirit lives in form, and those who lose his form are bound to perish his spirit. Bian Zhilin, also advocated that the translated poems should be translated in accordance with the original form.

Therefore, as far as translation is concerned, Mao Dun and Fu Lei advocate the emphasis on spiritual resemblance rather than formal resemblance, Jiang Feng advocates both form and spirit, while Bian Zhilin advocates that form resemblance is spiritual resemblance.

===4. Conclusion===
From the above content, we can know that there are many factors that influence the form and spirit in translation, and the emphasis on the form or spirit resemblance in translation depends on some specific situations, which need to be analyzed on a specific basis. For example, when translating ancient poems and poems, in order to keep the antithesis neat, we emphasize the form more; When translating long sentences with beautiful artistic conception, we usually put more emphasis on the spirit in order to preserve the beauty of artistic conception.

In the process of translation, to achieve the dialectical unity of form and spirit, at least two aspects need to be considered: one is the restriction of form on content; the other is the stylistic meaning of form itself. We should not only consciously convey the content of the original text, but also convey the formal meaning, so as to achieve a new unity of form and content in the target language, to produce a better translation and achieve a harmonious unity between form and spirit.

However, in some cases the formal resemblance is the spiritual resemblance. The two are not completely separated, but there is a part of you and a part of me in each other. Sometimes the formal resemblance is bigger than the spiritual resemblance, and sometimes spiritual resemblance is bigger than the formal resemblance. This is the dialectic of things, if we insist on consistency, it will backfire. Therefore, we should not only get a thorough understanding of the original text, in-depth study, strive for both form and spirit, grasp the key points and master them thoroughly, but also be prepared to abandon the form of the original text, grasp the essence of the original text, use appropriate form, the original text for artistic recreation, so as to strive for the ideal effect of spirit resemblance.

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[2] Li Zhengguo. 李振国. (2016). 从奈达的功能对等理论视角探析英汉翻译中的“形神兼备”——以程雨民的《初次与约翰逊见面》译本为例. [An Analysis of "Both form and Spirit" in English-Chinese translation from the Perspective of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory -- A case study of Cheng Yumin's ''First Meeting with Johnson'']. ''贵州师范学院学报''. [Journal of Guizhou Normal University] 92-94.

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[4] Pang Xuefeng. 庞学峰. (2013). 翻译中的文质之争与神形之辩. [The quality of the text and the form of the debate in translation]. ''赤峰学院学报(汉文哲学社会科学版)''. [Journal of Chifeng College (Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences edition)] 150-151.

[5] Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). “形”与“神”辨. ["Form" and "Spirit"]. ''上海外国语大学学报''. [Journal of Shanghai International Studies University] 57-66.

[6] Zhang Ju. 张巨. (2011). 汉英意境翻译中的形与神. [Form and Spirit in Chinese-English translation of Artistic Conception]. ''江苏外语教学研究''. [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu province] 74-78.

[7] Zhang Rui. 张蕊. (2015). 从形与神之矛盾看“翻译者即背叛者”. [From the contradiction between form and Spirit, "translator is a traitor"]. ''鸭绿江(下半月版)''. [The Yalu River (second Half)] 122+117.

[8] Zhang Xiaoman. 张小曼. (2006). 诗歌翻译中的形神问题——以杜甫《望岳》一诗的英译为例. [The Problem of Form and Spirit in Poetry Translation -- Taking The English translation of Du Fu's ''Wangyue'' as an example]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''. [Journal of Hefei University of Technology (Social Science edition)] 157-160.

--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Book Analysis: The Way of Transaltion: Theories and Application 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==
your student number and 专业are missing--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===
The Way of Translation:Theories and Applications closely circled around the mutual relationship between translation theory and practice to make explanation about translation studies. This article aims to make a summary about the original text, which includes a brief translation history, the present situation about the translation study, the detailed analysis about the “cultural turn” as well as some important redefined concept about translation studies and the deep reflection about the translation studies. The author would like to make some analysis about the book from different perspectives, includes the introduction, major contend, academic contributions, strength and weakness etc.

===Key Words===
translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose
Translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===
《翻译之道：翻译理论与实践》一书紧紧围绕翻译理论与实践之间的互动关系展开, 作者对中西翻译历史作出简要回顾，针砭时弊，对翻译理论与实践现状进行了切中的描述，深挖“文化转向”的来龙去脉，重新界定了翻译概念、目的与标准等概念，对理论与实践的现状作出深刻反思。本文将就原书出版背景、逻辑主线、学术立意、读后启发几个方面展开论述。

===关键词===
翻译理论与实践；“文化转向”；译介学；翻译学；文本目的

===Introduction===
About the Background
As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate their experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time.
After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject.
However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other.
Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.
Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches.

About the Author
Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.

The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.

====About the Background====
As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time.

After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject.

However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other.

Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.

Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====About the Author====
Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.

The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Main body===

====The brief introduction====
From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.
First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches.
Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent.
In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”.
The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators.
Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.

From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.

First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches.

Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent.

In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”.

The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators.

Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Specific Exposition====
To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.
He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal.
In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”.
In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent.
While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”.
This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus.
Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.
In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).
From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73).
However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth& Cowie, 2004:183).
Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn.
From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task.
First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.
The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators.
In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.

To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.

He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal.

In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”.

In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent.

While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”.

This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus.

Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).

From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73).

However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth& Cowie, 2004:183).

Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn.

From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task.

First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.

The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators.

In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===The writing feature===
====Complete system with extensive quotations====
In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice.
Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the "annual review" of Chinese translation studies.
For this reason, the author makes a research on the "cultural turn" which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as "equivalent translation exploration", "contemporary translation theory", "translation", "the basic framework of the translation in China" in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature "and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study.
The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.
In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.

In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice.

Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the "annual review" of Chinese translation studies.

For this reason, the author makes a research on the "cultural turn" which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as "equivalent translation exploration", "contemporary translation theory", "translation", "the basic framework of the translation in China" in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature "and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study.

The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.

In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.
--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Logical and philosophical Explanation====
At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined.
First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter "cultural turn", known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.
The translator's task is to "make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers". As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of "translation theory location map", can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.

At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined.

First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter "cultural turn", known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.

The translator's task is to "make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers". As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of "translation theory location map", can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Powerful Critism with strong evidence====
Throughout the full text, from the status quo of the theory and practice of the second chapter, especially the book in the last few chapters, the author through a large number of reading and rely on the accumulation of translation practice for a long time, have been put forward for the theoretical study and practice of translation problems in reality, the relationship between problem, theory research example, textual research is lax, citing uncertainty, terminology translation and the translation is not unified, there thinking logic and language logic problem, theory and problems such as monotonous and argument, and the question of whether cognitive process is objective, translator translation practice have a "betrayal" of the problem of the wind, vision, objective, to the point, In the last chapter, the author elaborated on the relationship between pure theory and translation, provided a way to combine theory with practice, and improved a complete methodology and action guide for us to better combine theory with practice.

===Conclusion===
From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.
Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities.

In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.
Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose.
With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas.
Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.
Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative.
Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”.
He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.
Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity.
He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject.
Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.
Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner.
To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research.
The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!

From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.

Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities.

In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.

Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose.

With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas.

Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.

Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative.

Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”.

He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.

Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity.

He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject.

Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.

Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner.

To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research.

The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:24, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Reference===
Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.
Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie：翻译研究词典[M]．外语教学与研究出版社，2005
谢天振，王宁翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展 [M]．复旦大学出版社，2017
曹明伦，翻译之道：理论与实践 [M]．保定：河北大学出版社，2007
甘雪梅．2010．“学、“术共生，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书[J]．湖北函授大学学报，(5)：110-111
黄中习．2008．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评[J]．北经济学院学报，(10)：150一l51
朱蕤．2010．对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以《翻译之道》为伽 R1．福建省外国语文学会2010年年会．厦门

Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.(缺少年份)

Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie.翻译研究词典．外语教学与研究出版社，2005（格式错误）

Xie Tianzhen, Wang Ning. 谢天振，王宁. (2017). ''翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展''. [Translation Studies: The Search and Development as an Independent Subject] 上海：复旦大学出版社[Shanghai: Fudan University Press].

Cao Minglun. 曹明伦. (2017). ''翻译之道：理论与实践''. [The Tao of Translation: Theory and Practice] 保定：河北大学出版社[Baoding: Hebei University Press].

Gan Xuemei. 甘雪梅. (2010)．“学、“术共生，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书. [Symbiosis of "Science and "Technology", "Dao" and "Apparatus" Mutually Reconcile: A Comment on Professor Cao Minglun's Book "The Tao of Translation: Theory and Practice"]. ''湖北函授大学学报''[Journal of Hubei Correspondence University] 110-111.

Huang Zhongxi. 黄中习．(2008)．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评. [Efforts to build a harmonious relationship between translation theory and practice: An introduction to the theory and practice of translation]. ''北经济学院学报''[Journal of North University of Economics]150一l51.

Zhu Yu. 朱蕤. (2010). 对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以《翻译之道》为例. [Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies: Taking "The Way of Translation" as an example]. 厦门：福建省外国语文学会2010年年会. [Xiamen: 2010 Annual Meeting of Fujian Foreign Language and Literature Association].--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=Translation Strategies=

==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==

===Abstract===
This paper studies the English version of ''seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the perspective of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory of translation. It can be found that this English version focuses on the target audience and uses appropriate translation strategies, methods and techniques in the light of the target audience's reading habits and cultural background, such as free translation, literal translation, shift, addition, omission, division and combination. As a result, the English translation’s vocabulary, discourse structure or expression can be easier to be accepted by the target audience, which is conducive to the dissemination of China's information and maximizes the communication effect of international news of China.

Keywords: Skopos Theory; translation strategies; translation methods；audience

===摘要===
根据汉斯・佛米尔翻译目的论的观点对《为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年》英译本进行研究，发现该译本以目标受众为着眼点，从目标受众的阅读习惯和文化背景出发，运用恰当的翻译策略、方法和技巧，比如意译、直译、转译、增译、减译等，因而译本的英语词汇、语篇结构或表达方式更易为目标受众接受，这有利于中国信息的传播，最大程度增强我国国际新闻的对外传播效力。

关键词: 目的论；翻译方法；翻译技巧; 受众

===Introduction===
''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' is a white paper published by the Information Office of the State Council of China in September 2019. In addition to the preface and conclusion, the full text consists of eight parts, and quotes a large amount of data to show in detail the progress of human rights in China since 1949; the people-centeredness of human rights; the ways to realize the protection of human rights; the remarkable achievements in the implementation of human rights; the continuous strengthening of human rights protection and China's contribution to promoting the cause of human rights in the world.

Nowadays, international political, economic and cultural exchanges are unprecedented frequent and in-depth. International information and culture should be welcomed by our country. At the same time, Chinese culture and values need to be spread. We should have our own voice in international exchange activities, to tell Chinese stories so that the world can better understand China(He Jiaying 2020,4). Therefore, the translation of Chinese international news plays an important role in cross-cultural communication and communication between China and foreign countries. Therefore，it is also worthwhile to study the translation of these news.

In ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'', its accurate and rigorous translation has played a positive role in shaping national image and building international discourse. There are a large number of words related to political system with Chinese characteristics in this text. These words often represent some important policies and current situation of human rights of our country. Accurate translation of these words is the key to correctly convey these messages.

Skopos theory focuses on the purpose of translation and holds that translation activities should adopt corresponding translation methods and techniques. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation work is mainly for the target audience. Its purpose is to achieve the re-dissemination of the original content and finally gain a certain communicative effect.

As a political document, ''seeking happiness for people: 70 years of progress on human rights in China'' can be regarded as government behavior, that is, the organizer and commissioner of translation is the government, and the translator is the institution and interpreter entrusted by the Chinese government. If the relationship between entrustment and entrustment is made clear, the purpose of translation is obvious. The Chinese government disseminates such information, like the concept of human rights, the way to realize the cause of human rights, the achievements of developing human rights, and China's contributions over the years, to English speaking countries on the basis of respecting their linguistic habits and cultural backgrounds. In this way，translators should observe translation principles and choose appropriate translation strategies under the guidance of this purpose.

The principle of coherence requires the translation to be logically clear and semantically cohesive, which can keep the Chinese style of political documents while making it accessible to readers. The principle of faithfulness requires the translator to accurately understand and grasp the connotation of article. (Luo Mazhang, 1984,124-126). On this basis, translators use translation techniques and methods to translate and interpret the original text, so that what readers understand from the English version is consistent with the information expressed in the original text. Moreover, according to the different characteristics of these words related to the political system with Chinese characteristics, we should adopt different translation strategies, methods and skills.

===A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory===
Skopos theory originated in Germany in the 1970s put forward by Hans Vermeer. It belongs to functional translation theory, in which it is the most important theory. It has a wide influence on text translation and is widely employed in translation. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any behavior has a purpose. The primary factor determining the process of translation is the purpose of translation (VERMEER HANS. J 1989:90). That is to say, translators shall exercise corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified in the light of the translation purpose. The translation strategy depends on the needs and expectations of the target language readers or audiences. Therefore, we can say that translation is a text that meets the needs of readers on the basis of translation purpose.

People pursuing skopos theory believe that skopos rules, coherence rule and fidelity rule should be followed in translation. The Skopos rule refers to that the translation behavior depends on the translation purpose, in other words the result determines the method; the coherence rule means that the translation must conform to the standard of intralingual coherence, namely, the translation must be comprehensible by the receiver and be meaningful in the target language communication; the faithfulness method refers to the existence of interlingual coherence between the original text and the target text, that is, the translation should be as faithful as possible to the original text (NORD C 2002,28).

Among the three laws, the rule of faithfulness is subordinate to the law of coherence, and at the same time, the two laws ultimately depend on the law of purpose. The translator should first ensure that the translation can achieve the intended purpose, then ensure the coherence of the translation, and finally ensure the consistency between the translation and the original (N. Zhao 2014, 98-101). We know that different cultures have different cultural customs and their own unique values, so translation is not an act of transforming one language into another. The translator should translate based on some specific requirements, combined with the specific demands of the translation, the target readers' reading habits and cultural background.

===The Employment of the Translation Strategies And Translation Methods in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===

====Foreignization Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====
In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him." (2006,229) It is shown that in translation, the language, literature and cultural characteristics of the original text should be retained to the full, and the foreign tone kept. The advantages of foreignization strategy are as follows: the structure of source language, poetic features can be introduced into the target language to enrich the expression of the target language; the target language readers can fully appreciate the exotic beauty, and thus promote the cultural exchange between different nationalities (Venuti, 1995). The defect of foreignization strategy is mainly reflected in the readability of the translation, that is, the translation may be stiff and not natural enough, which will affect the reception and dissemination of the target language among the target recipients.

=====Literal Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Literal translation is characterized by two main features: with regard to lexical meaning and rhetoric without the use of paraphrase, which distinguishes it from free translation; in the processing of lexical and syntactic structure, appropriate changes or transformations are allowed, for example, word order transformation is used to make the translation conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language, which distinguishes literal translation from word-for-word translation (Munday, J 2008,9). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

两个一百年 Two Centenary Goals; 当家作主 became masters of their country; 伟大复兴的中国梦 Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation;人类命运共同体 a global community of shared future;中共十八大 the 18th CPC National Congress;五位一体Five-point Strategy;习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想 Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era;民法通则和侵权责任法the General Principles of the Civil Law and Tort Liability Law

Analysis: with the continuous advancement of China's political and economic status in recent years, China has mastered a certain voice in the international community, and initially established a unique political discourse system. Therefore, some characteristic political words can be translated literally without causing difficulties for the foreign audience to understand.

=====Zero Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Zero translation does not demand any operation in translating. Some elements of the source language are directly introduced into the target language (Munday, J 2008,8). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1:中国以占全球6.6%的淡水资源和9%的耕地，养活了世界近20%的人口。
China feeds approximately 20 percent of the world's population using 6.6 percent of the fresh water resources and 9 percent of the arable land of the world.

Example 2:1949年末，全国城乡就业人员18082万人，其中城镇就业人员仅有1533万人，城镇失业率高达23.6%。
At the end of 1949 there were 180.82 million people across the country in employment, of whom only 15.33 million worked in urban areas.

Analysis: The white paper uses a large number of figures to specifically describe the changes and achievements of China since the implementation of human rights. For these large numbers, it is not necessary to translate them, but to keep the Arabic numerals directly. In this way, the translation is faithful to the original text. Besides, it is in line with the purpose of publicity translation.

=====Word-for-word translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Word-for-word translation refers to the translation of the original sentence by word without considering the differences in morphology, syntax and semantics between the two languages (Munday, J 2008,7). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

半殖民地半封建社会 semi-colonial and semi-feudal society；改革开放 the reform and opening up；一带一路”倡议 the Belt and Road Initiative

Analysis: The above political terms widely emerge in various documents and news in China, and also appear in a high proportion in all sorts of reports of foreign media. Therefore, even if word-for-word translation of above words is taken by translators, readers can also understand translations easily without additional translation or explanation, which reflects the principle of faithfulness to the original text in skopos theory.

====Domestication Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====
In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(2006:229). Translators should try to replace the source language, literature and culture with those being popular among the target language readers, and abide by the target language norms. The advantages of domestication are that the translation is smooth, easy to be understood and accepted by the target language recipients, or to meet the specific needs of the target language readers. The defects of domestication strategy are as follows: the loss of language, literature and cultural elements in the original text, which results in the target language recipients being deprived of the opportunity to appreciate foreign languages, literature and culture. This is not conducive to the enrichment and development of the language, literature and culture of the target country and the cultural exchange among different nationalities (Venuti,1995).

=====Free Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
The main feature of free translation is the use of paraphrase in the processing of lexical meaning and rhetoric, so as to reproduce the meaning of the original text smoothly and truly. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：四个全面”战略布局 Four-pronged Strategy

Analysis: Four pronged refers to the rake with four teeth. Through cultural borrowing, it vividly interprets a comprehensive strategy of four pronged, to illustrate that the strategic layout includes four aspects, and the contents of the four aspects should go hand in hand. This translation reproduces the lexical and syntactic structure of the source language as well as the form of the original language.

Example 2：新时代中国特色社会主义将人民对美好生活的向往作为奋斗目标。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, the people's aspiration to live a better life is the focus of all the country's work.

Analysis: The literal translation of “奋斗目标” is usually goal or purpose, but here it is translated as“the focus of all the country's work”，which emphasizes its importance in this context.

Example 3：世界各国在人权保障上没有最好，只有更好。
Every country has room for improvement in protecting human rights.

Example 4：个人权利只有与集体权利统一起来，才能实现人权的最大化。
Individual rights can only be maximized in the context of collective rights.

Example 5：新中国成立之初，社会保障尚属空白。
There was no social security system in China when the PRC was founded.

Example 6：绿水青山就是金山银山。
Lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets.

Example 7：截至2018年，西藏自治区已有117名学经僧人获得了格西“拉让巴”学位，68名僧人获得了中国藏语系高级佛学院“拓然巴”高级学衔。
By 2018 a total of 117 monks from Tibet had received senior academic titles in Lhasa and 68 from the High-level Tibetan Buddhism College of China.

Analysis: In example 3, "better" is translated into "there is still room", which is another expression to convey the same idea. Although the expression is different, but the meaning is the same, which means that there are always more efforts needed to be put into protecting human rights. In example 4, it uses “in the context” to vividly deliver the condition that individual rights are combined with collective rights. In example 5, “空白”actually refers that social security has yet to be popularized to the public. So it can't be literally translated into “blank”. The free translation here is a good expression of the original meaning. “绿水” in example 6 is not to emphasize that the water is green, but to indicate all the clear and clean waters and the currents, so it is lucid waters. In example 7,“拉让巴”and “拓然巴” are all translated into “senior academic titles”, which make the readers directly clear about its real connotation.

===The Employment on the Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory===
In the translation methods, apart from zero translation, transliteration and word-for-word translation, the other five translation methods will involve the usage of various translation techniques. There are many kinds of skills, but they can be generally classified into five kinds: omission, addition, division, combination and shift (M. F. Zhang 2009, 53-60). The following is a rough analysis of the translation techniques employed in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''.

====Omission Under Translation Skills====
Omission refers to the deletion of some complicated and redundant words, sentences or even paragraphs in the original text according to the needs of morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or due to some specific cultural norms of the target language (Reiss K 1971). By doing so, the original ideas can be expressed more concisely and smoothly, and then the translation can better achieve the specific translation purposes. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 中国人权事业的命脉所在、根本所在。
the foundations for the cause of human rights in China.

Example 2: 国家提出经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设、生态文明建设“五位一体”总体布局，使每个人的经济、政治、文化、社会、环境权利能够得到充分保障。
It puts forward the Five-point Strategy (promoting economic, political, cultural, social, and environmental progress in a coordinated way), so every citizen's rights can be fully protected in each of these spheres.

Example 3：中国的粮食总产量由1949年的11318万吨提高到2018年的65789万吨，耕地灌溉面积由1949年的1594万公顷扩大到2018年的6810万公顷。
Total grain output soared from 113.18 million tons in 1949 to 657.89 million tons in 2018, and the area of irrigated farmland from 15.94 million ha in 1949 to 68.1 million ha in 2018.

Example 4：中国从根本上消除了饥饿，持续改善了人民的营养水平。
It has succeeded in improving nutrition and eradicating hunger.

Example 5：截至2018年，全国已有84%的行政村实现生活垃圾收运处置体系基本覆盖。
By 2018, 84 percent of all administrative villages were provided with garbage treatment.

Analysis: in example 1, “命脉”and “根本” are all used to express the necessity of the cause of human rights, thus one of them can be omitted. In example 2, “economic, political, cultural, social and environmental spheres” has been mentioned in the preceding sentence, so the latter one can replace them with “each of these spheres”. In example 3 the verbs in the first and second sentences are both “soar”，so the latter one can directly be left out by the rules of English grammar. Example 4 directly through the phrase “has succeeded in” to show the results. "从根本上" and “水平” of “营养水平” is to emphasize with no much necessity in the translation, whose omission does not affect the original meaning. Example 5 only use the passive voice of "provide" that can succinctly and lucidly express the original meaning.

Example 6：因为有了新中国70年，中国人民的生活才更加幸福美满；因为有了新中国70年，我们的世界才更加繁荣发展；因为有了新中国70年，人类社会才更加丰富多彩。
As a result of the developments that have taken place in the PRC over the 70 years, the people of China are living a happier life, the world is more prosperous, and human society is more diverse and colorful.

Analysis: "因为有了新中国70年" has been repeated three times to strengthen the tone. While in the translation, it is only referred once to avoid wordiness. There are several other same translations using this skill in the following text. A large number of parallelisms often appear in Chinese political texts. When studying the translation of these sentences, we can find one thing in common, that is, repeated words can be translated only once, which reflects the concise characteristics of English language.

====Addition Under Translation Skills====
Additional translation refers to the reasonable and appropriate addition of certain words, sentences or paragraphs to the translation according to the needs of the morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or subject to certain norms of the target language, so as to better express the content of the original text and better realize the specific translation purpose (Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：人权是历史的、发展的。
Human rights are a historical and developmental concept.

Example 2：人类社会发展经验 the experience gained in human social development

Example 3：中国共产党带领人民深刻总结我国社会主义建设正反两方面经验。
Under the leadership of the CPC, the people review experiences and lessons drawn from socialist construction.

Analysis: Example 1 adds “concept”；Example 2 adds “gain”, a verb, to show the source of experience；Example 3 adds “lessons”, because experiences and lessons can be regarded as a pair of phrases that always appear together.

Example 4：改善城市和农村人居环境，开展生态修复、城市修补……生活垃圾收运处置体系建设。
Efforts have been made in several areas: improving the living environment in cities……transporting and disposing of household garbage in rural areas.

Example 5：国家建立了最低生活保障制度、最低工资保障制度……中小学义务教育制度等。
Chinese government has put into place a number of systems and mechanisms, including those dealing with subsistence allowances, the minimum wage……and compulsory education (primary and middle schools).

Analysis: Summary phrases have been added in several parts of the white paper to make the text clearer. Example 4 adds “efforts” to be the subject in order to clearly state what has been done by China；example 5 uses “systems and mechanisms” to outline its specific content one by one.

Example 6：新时代中国特色社会主义着眼于实现“两个一百年”奋斗目标和中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, China focuses on achieving the Two Centenary Goals and realizing the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

Example 7：依法保障宗教信仰自由。
China protects freedom of religious belief in accordance with the law.

Example 8：建立起世界上覆盖人口最多的社会保障制度。
China has established a social security system that covers the largest population in the world.

Example 9：尊重和保障人权 We must respect and guarantee human rights.

Analysis: when translating a Chinese sentence without subject into English, the subject mentioned above should be added in translation. Because in Chinese discourse, when the subject appears, it can be omitted in later sentences. As a hypotaxis language, English is stricter with its language structure. As an important part of a sentence, the subject cannot be omitted. Therefore, in examples 6-9, the subjects of “China” and “we” are added to the sentence to make the sentence complete.

====Division Under Translation Skills====
Division refers to dividing a sentence into two or more sentences, which can effectively solve the translation difficulties of long complex sentences and satisfy the expression habits of the target language and the reading habits of the audience (Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 中国共产党的领导，是中国人民能够享有人权并不断享有更加充分人权的根本保证，是全体中国人民的利益所在、幸福所在。
The Party's leadership is the fundamental guarantee for the people of China to have access to human rights, and to fully enjoy more human rights. This leadership is therefore in the interests of all people of China, critical for their pursuit of a happy life.

Example 2: 中国特色社会主义将“人权得到切实尊重和保障”作为全面建成小康社会的重要目标，从战略层面确立了人权事业的重要地位。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, full respect for and protection of human rights is an important goal of China's endeavors to build a moderately prosperous society in all respects. This establishes the importance of human rights from a strategic perspective.

Example 3: 多年来，中国始终把解决人民的生存权、实现人民的发展权作为第一要务，不断解放和发展生产力，致力于消除贫困，提高发展水平，为保障人民各项权利的实现创造了基础条件。
Prioritizing people's rights to subsistence and development, China has committed to liberating and developing productive forces, eliminating poverty, and enhancing its level of development. All this has laid the foundation for fulfilling the various rights of the people.

Example 4: 坚持人民在人权事业中的主体地位，把人民利益摆在至高无上的位置，让人民过上好日子，使发展成果更多更公平地惠及全体人民，让每个人更好地发展自我、幸福生活，让每个人都能够免于恐惧、不受威胁，是实现人人享有更加充分人权的真谛所在。
For everyone to fully enjoy human rights, we must uphold the people-centered approach……and ensure a good life for the people. We must ensure that the fruits of development offer greater benefits to all the people in a fair way……and prevent them from fear and threat.

Example 5: 国际社会应秉持和平、发展、公平、正义、民主、自由的人类共同价值，维护人的尊严和权利，推动形成更加公正合理包容的全球人权治理。
The international community should uphold the shared values of humanity – peace, development, fairness, justice, democracy and freedom. It must safeguard human dignity and rights, and strive for fairer, more reasonable and inclusive global human rights governance.

Example 6: 多年来，中国政府通过改革农村土地制度，稳定和完善农村土地承包关系，大力推进农田水利设施建设，使农业综合生产能力不断提升，主要农产品产量稳定增长。
Over the years the Chinese government has carried out rural land reforms to stabilize and improve land contracting system in rural areas. With improved irrigation infrastructure, China's agriculture has seen a continuing rise in productivity and steady increase in the output of main agricultural products.

Analysis: In example 1-6, the syntax is too long and there are too many clauses. Therefore, in order to avoid the syntax being too complicated, it is necessary to split it. At the same time, there are many non-subject sentences in Chinese while English sentences usually have subjects. Therefore, when translating Chinese sentences without subject into English, translators need to complete the subject of most sentences according to the context. For example, add pronouns “it”, “this”, or start with preposition "with". In this case, the translated sentences will make the readers more relaxed and comfortable in reading.

====Combination Under Translation Skills====
Combination refers to combining two or more sentences in the original text into one sentence. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 1982年，第五届全国人大五次会议通过了现行宪法。宪法明确规定了中国社会主义民主的主要内容和基本形态。
In 1982, the Fifth Session of the Fifth NPC adopted the current Constitution of the PRC, which clearly defines the substance and basic form of socialist democracy.

Example 2: 中国努力通过发展增进人民福祉，实现更加充分的人权保障。China strives to enhance people's wellbeing through development in order to better protect their human rights.

Analysis: Example 1 combines the two sentences with “which”, making the text more compact. In example 2, the combination is realized by “in order to”, which reflects the logical connection between sentences, and the purpose is clearer.

====Shift Under Translation Skills====
=====Shift From Active Voice to Passive Voice=====
There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：在新中国成立前夕，通过了具有临时宪法作用的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》。
The Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, which was adopted on the eve of the founding of the PRC and served as the provisional Constitution of China.

Example 2：第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议通过的《中华人民共和国宪法》。
The 1954 Constitution of the PRC, which was adopted at the First Session of the First National People's Congress (NPC).

Example 3：应当尊重人权发展道路的多样性
Diversity in developing human rights should be respected.

Example 4：尊重和保障人权
Human rights are respected and guaranteed.

Example 5：在当代中国的人权实践中，既重视集体人权的发展，又重视个人人权的保障。
In China, equal attention has been paid to developing collective rights and ensuring individual rights.

Analysis: Chinese uses more active voice while English more passive voice. Therefore, in the translation of the original sentences, the subject is put in front and the passive voice is used. In addition, Chinese often express the logical relations between words and sentences by context and word order while English needs clear connectives to express them. Therefore, it is often necessary to add connective words to express logical relations in translation from Chinese to English.

=====Class Shift=====
There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 从1950年起，对国营厂矿交通企业的生产和管理制度进行民主改革，建立工厂管理委员会和职工代表大会。
The democratic reform of the production and management of state-owned factories, mines, and transportation operators that started in 1950 set up factory management committees and workers' congresses in these entities.
Here the verb“民主改革”is shifted to a noun, and leads this sentence, which stresses the role of it.

Example 2人民基本居住条件显著改善。Improved housing conditions.

Example 3饮水安全获得切实保障。Safe drinking water.

Example 4国民健康水平持续提高。Better health for the people.

Example 5 经济凋敝、民不聊生 a shattered economy, a destitute populace

Analysis: In example 2-4, all the verbs are shifted to adjectives in above sentences, which become neater and terser. In example 5,“民不聊生” means ordinary people is too hard and poor to survive themselves. If just literally translate it like above, the sentence will not so succinct or regular as well as not conform to the sentence structure of four characters in parallelism.

===Conclusion===
This text introduces ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''. Because the white paper is a typical central document published by government, propagating the concept of human rights, practical measures and gains, and takes the comprehensive and accurate introduction as the purpose. What’s more, it is closely related to national interests and national image.

Based on its political characteristics, this paper studies its translation strategies, methods and techniques from the perspective of Skopos theory, and finds that the difference between the Chinese version and the English version is mainly due to the different readers. The English version is aimed at English audiences, and linguistic form and culture in England are different from China’s. For example, English uses more passive voice, while Chinese uses active voice; when translating Chinese without subject into English, except those passive voice translations, the correct subject should be added into the translation; English focuses more on logic and connection while Chinese on the meaning and content of text.

The differences may affect readers' understanding of the translation. Therefore, in the process of translation, translators should use appropriate translation techniques and methods according to their differences. Moreover, for such a political report, there are many official words, long sentences and heavy emphases on tone. Thus, the techniques of literal translation, division, addition and subtraction are frequently used.

From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation takes into account not only the function and purpose of the original text, but also the receptivity of the audience and the effect of the translation. Through the study of this white paper, we can see that translators need to stand on the perspective of the audience in the white paper translation, should shift from Chinese language patterns to western with facility, use appropriate translation methods, strategies and techniques, and be faithful to the original content in order to translate political intent clearly and accurately. In this way, misinterpretation, leaking and unclear translation can be avoided, so as to let foreign audiences can quickly and efficiently receive the information that the original text intends to pass on. This study can provide theoretical basis and good ideas for the future translators to find the best translation methods and strategies.

===References===
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[12]VERMEER HANS. J. (1989). ''Skopos and Commission in Translational Action.'' ANDREW CHESTERMA. Readings in Translation. Helsinki: Oy Finn Leetura Ab.

[13]He Jiaying 何嘉莹, et al.(2020). "翻译目的论视角下英语新闻的编译策略——基于江苏某科技组织微信公众号平台和南方某高校外国语学院英文网站建设." [Translation Strategy Is Based on the Skopos Theory: The Construction of English News Website Based on the Official Account of WeChat, A Science And Technology Organization in Jiangsu, and the English Website of A Foreign Language College in Southern China.] 科技传播 Science And Technology Communication.

[14]Luo Mazhang 罗新璋.(1984). 翻译论集[Translation Volume]. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: Commercial Press.

[15]Ma Huijuan, Miao Ju 马会娟，苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论宣读[Reading of Contemporary Western Translation Theories].北京：外语研究与教学出版社 Beijing: Foreign Language Research And Teaching Press.

[16]Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of " Translation Strategies ", " Translation Methods " And " Translation Techniques "] 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal.

[17]Information Office of the State Council of the people's Republic of China 中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. (2019). "为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年" [Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China]. 人民日报 People’s Daily.

==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590 MTI==

<center>胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590</center>

===Abstract===

This paper is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects. In addtion, the current challenges should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.

===Key Words===

Translator’s subjectivity; Invisibility; Visibility.

===题目===

译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”

===摘要===

本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。

===关键词===

译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。

===Introduction===

The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, and both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their personal views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)

For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but the role of translators in translation activities has always been neglected. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that oriented toward target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

===Translator's Subjectivity===

Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention. On the one hand, the traditional translation view, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. "And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity" (Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.

As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until the 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment. "And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed"(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). "Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively" (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.

====1. Definition of Translator's Subjectivity====

According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”. (Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)

====2. Related Theories on Translator's Subjectivity====

In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since the 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.

The studies on translator’s subjectivity of some typical schools will be introduced as follows.

=====2.1 Polysystem Theory=====

This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that "elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems" (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. "And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school" (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).

=====2.2 Manipulation School=====

The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. "From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose" (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that "translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.

====3. Factors Influencing the Translator's Subjectivity====

The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

=====3.1 The historical background of translator=====

The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility. Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese.

Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

=====3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence=====

The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expressions. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.

=====3.3 Understanding of the original=====

In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes," A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets ". There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text.

Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator in China, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)

In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. Under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this context, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)

===The Influence of Translator's Invisibility and Visibility on Translator's Subjectivity===

In literary translation, the word "invisibility" refers to "the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion"; while "apparent" is put forward according to the opposite of "invisibility", which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, the fact is that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding.Translator should fully make use of it. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)

Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators. Specifically, they can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's "appearance".(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)

1. Translator's invisibility

The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.

According to the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve "transparency" and "invisibility". The "transparency" of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the "invisibility" refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text. "The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis." (Xu Jun, 2003).

In a word, "faithfulness" and "equivalence" should be achieved in translation. The criterion of "faithfulness" also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity. The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be "invisible", but in essence, this "invisibility" is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)

2. Translator's visibility

In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to "resist" and adopt poor translation. "Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added." (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the "resistance" translation strategy to retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation. In this context, the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator. (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

===The Challenge of Translator's Subjectivity===

As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.

1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity

With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time.

Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play.

But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity

In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood.

The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

From this point of view, professionalization also prose challenges on the translator's subjectivity. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative

The translator's "invisibility" and "manifestation" are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. "Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective "uncertainty" needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed " (Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010).

However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of "overcorrection". In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology in the historical background of the translator. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)

When there is a conflict the ideology between the translator and the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)

===Conclusion===

Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.

Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to "invisibility" and "manifestation" in contemporary literary translation, we should know "invisibility" when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of "invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible", we can better understand the meaning of "invisibility" of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of "manifestation" when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of "invisible" or "explicit" in translation is worth considering.

==='''References'''===

Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979). "Polysystem Theory". Poetics Today (1) 287.

Hermans, Theo. (1985). "The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation". London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.

Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017). 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构 [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译 Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.

Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019). 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's "invisibility" and "manifestation" in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example]. 智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.

Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰. (2014). 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性 [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.

Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011). 论译者的“隐形”和“显形” [On the translator's "invisibility" and "visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.

Shufen Huang. (2019). “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100.

Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020). 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性 [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.

ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨. (2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起 [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.

Zhiwei Gu. (2017). "On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity", English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing Japanese Language and Literature==

<center>马智星 Ma Zhixing 202020080625</center>

===Abstract===
Throughout the history of western translation, as the subject of translation, the change of translator's identity reveals a process from "invisibility" to "appearance". In different historical periods, different translators have never stopped discussing the "invisibility" and "appearance" of translators. From the perspective of historical development, this paper examines the different evolution of Lefevere's operation theory and Venuti's invisible translation theory in the western translation history, so as to analyze the change of the translator's identity and discuss the translator's subjectivity.

===Key Words===
translator's view;translation behavior;invisibility;

===摘要===
纵观西方翻译史，作为翻译主体的译者，其身份的变化彰显了一个由“隐身”到“现身”的过程。不同历史时期，不同翻译家们对于译者的“隐身”和“现身”的讨论，从未停止。本文从历史发展的角度，考察西方翻译史中勒菲弗尔的操作论和韦努迪的译者隐身翻译理论的不同演变，以此分析译者身份的变化，从而对译者的主体性进行探讨。

===关键词===
翻译观；译者行为；隐形

===Ⅰ.Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory===
In the 1980s, culture, rather than text, emerged as the Unit of translation, bringing cultural studies into a new stage of translation theory: Cultural Theory of translation. This change is called the "cultural turn" in the field of translation studies. Andrea, a representative of the Cultural School of Translation Studies, is an important theoretical figure in the field of contemporary Western Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. The translation studies school originally originated in Europe, and Lefevere's profound insight enriched and advanced the further development of this theory in the United States and the world.

Lefevere's manipulation theory is a well-known theory in the Cultural School of Translation Studies. Lefevere regards translation as a rewriting of the original and a manipulation of the original, which breaks the traditional thinking of evaluating translation with the original as the criterion. Lefevere's manipulation theory generally refers to the process of translation, adaptation, compilation, criticism and editing of literary works. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and a form of creating another text image Literary criticism, biography, film, drama, parody, reader's guide, compilation of history, criticism and editing are all rewriting of the text, which are all forms of creating another text image. In other words, translation creates the literary and cultural images of the original text, the original author, and the original text. And all rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics.(Bassnett & Lefevere, 1990:8 )

Lefevere studies translation in a broad sociocultural context, emphasizing the role of ideology, mainstream poetics and culture. Translation is bound to serve certain ideology and poetics. In his view, "rewriting" is "manipulating" . It can "manipulate" literature and "culture" , the positive aspect of which is to help the evolution of literature and society through the introduction of new concepts, new literary genres and new means of expression. The rewriting of different historical periods should be controlled by ideology and mainstream poetics, and finally be related to power and become a means to serve it. The three elements of Lefevere's manipulation theory are set out in translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. In his opinion, translation can not truly reflect the original work, mainly because it is always manipulated by three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.

'''1.Ideological'''

ideology refers to a system of ideas that reflects the interests and requirements of a particular economic form, class or social group. Its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. . Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communicative activity, will inevitably be affected by ideology. Lefevere points out that ideology has a great influence on translation, which exerts a subtle influence on the translator's thinking and translation activities. Ideology influences the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Under the control of ideology, the translator may add, delete or change the original text at will, making the translation serve his own political purposes.
At the same time, different translators will form their own ideology because of their different personal experience, educational level, social and cultural environment, etc. . If a translated work wants to enter into the social and cultural system of the target language, it is bound to be restricted by the corresponding social and ideological standards. If the translation violates or offends ideological taboos, it will be difficult to spread smoothly in the target language culture, and may even be banned. Through the analysis of famous translators such as Lin Shu's works, we can clearly feel that it was controlled and influenced by the ideology and poetics of Chinese society at that time. Ideological manipulation of translation can be reflected in the influence on the purpose of translated novels, the choice of translated texts and the application of translation strategies.-

'''2.Poetics'''

Poetics is a theory about poetry and the study of poetry and its techniques. It is also a theory about literature and art. The formation of poetics occurs in a certain period, which is often a choice for some types of practice at that time, while excluding other types. According to Lefevere, the methods of translation adopted by translators are carried out under the restriction of certain poetic factors. The study of poetics is as small as a word, as large as a sentence, the style of the whole text and the translation strategies. Translation greatly influences the interpenetration of different literary systems, not only by successfully introducing the image of a writer or a work into another literary system, but also in the introduction of new literary means into a certain poetics.

In lefevere's opinion, as the manipulator of translation, such rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because in the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. The rewriting of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriter works. In order to conform to the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the work is rewritten and to be accepted by as many readers as possible, the rewriter often makes some adjustments to the original work. Some masterpieces have also been dealt with to varying degrees so that they can be adapted to the cultural background of different social and historical conditions.

In the development of translation theory, more and more attention has been paid to the indispensability of poetics in translation. Poetics is concerned with what literature should or could be, and has two components, "One is a list of literary techniques, genres, themes, typical characters and situations, and symbols; the other is an idea of what role literature plays or should play in the overall social system. " To a certain extent, the poetic factors also determine the social role that the translation will play and the degree of its influence. The aesthetic sense of poetry in a work will disappear if the significance is emphasized but the poetic factors and the literary brilliance are ignored.

'''3.The Power of Patronage'''

Lefevere regards literary translation and other forms of rewriting as one of the social systems. This literary system has two controlling factors, one is the internal factor of the literary system, which is made up of various professionals such as critics, critics, teachers and translators The other is a patron who works outside the system and is "generally more interested in the ideology of literature than in the poetics of Literature" , "The powers (people or institutions) that promote or discourage literary reading, writing or rewriting, such as religious groups, classes, government departments, publishing houses, mass media organizations, can also be personal forces" (Lefevere, 1992:17)

In Lefevere's theory of the three elements, the most important factor is the power of the sponsor, who is always in charge of the whole process of translation. Translation itself is not an isolated act, but closely related to political, social and economic factors. Most translators translate well and safely within the space allowed by the social and political authority of their times. As "any force that may contribute to the production and dissemination of literary works and may hinder, prohibit and destroy literary works" (Chen Dehong, Zhang Nanfeng, 2000:176) , the power of patron can play a role through ideology, economic interests and social status.

Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the trend of translation activities, the development of translated literature and the social status of translators. For example, Yan Fu, as a translator and thinker, although he had his own clear goals and ideas in selecting translation materials, he was also an official appointed by the Qing government, therefore, his selection of translation materials is also controlled by the ideology of the sponsors. There is also a series of translations, translated or edited by Lin Yutang, that are closely related to the requests and suggestions of his patrons, the Pearl Buck and her husband.Lefevere's manipulation theory has opened up a new perspective for translation studies, which has shifted researchers'attention from the internal factors of the text to the external factors of the text, such as ideology, poetics and the power of patronage, this is of great significance to translation studies. Manipulation theory broadens the horizon of translation studies from text to culture. In recent years, with the rise of the Cultural School of Translation, the Study of translation from the perspective of the three elements of manipulation theory has become increasingly attractive.

=== Ⅱ. Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility===

'''2.1the Translator's Invisibility'''

Lawrence Venuti, an Italian American scholar, is an important representative and advocate of deconstructive translation theory. His translation thoughts are mainly concentrated in his monograph translator's invisibility published in 1995, his deconstructive translation essays rethinking and translation scandal.n his monograph the translator's invisibility, Venuti puts forward the term "invisibility", which is used to describe the status of translators in ontemporary British and American translation circles. He pointed out that the "invisibility" of the translation makes the reader unable to see the translator, as if he were reading the original rather than the translation.

There are two reasons why the translator is actually "invisible". First of all, translators themselves tend to translate into "fluent" English. Secondly, the way the target readers read the translated text. Whether it is prose, poetry, fiction or other types of subjects, most people accept that the ranslation is fluent in reading, without any unique language or style. It seems that the translation has reflected the author's substantive significance, and the translation seems to be not the translation but the original work.However, the premise of translation is that different languages and cultures are different and there is no absolute equivalence between them. This fluent translation method not only ignores the relationship between the author and the translator, the source text and the target text, obliterates the translator's interpretation, due status and efforts, but also conceals the differences between languages and cultures.

Therefore, Venuti puts forward the "resistance" translation strategy and advocates the translator to show his form. This kind of resistance is the courage to admit the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language and culture, and to show such differences, and even deviate from the original text. The translator should deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text to avoid the smooth translation, so that readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator.

The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.

'''2.2 Foreignization -- the Core of Venuti's Translation Thought''''

In 1813, Schleiermacher pointed out in his speech on different translation methods: "either the translator should keep the author at home and let the reader approach the author as much as possible, or the translator should keep the reader at ease and let the author approach the reader as much as possible." The former shows the language and cultural differences in foreign texts and sends readers abroad, which belongs to foreignization translation; the latter, centering on nationalism, naturalizes foreign values into the target culture and invites the original author to China.

Different from Schleiermacher, Venuti believes that foreignization translation can "suppress the violence of racial center in translation" and suppress the "violent" domestication of translation cultural values in English speaking countries. Therefore, foreignization translation is also known as resistance translation, which means that the translator highlights the foreign identity of the foreign text in the translation works by adopting non fluent translation techniques, and protects the original text from the control of the cultural ideology of the target language, so that he is no longer the "implicit person" of translation. Through the selection of foreign texts and foreignization translation, it challenges the cultural hegemony of English speaking countries and achieves the goal of cultural exchange.

'''2.3The Progress of Foreignization Translation Theory'''

Venuti considers translation in the context of society and culture and criticizes the way in which foreign literature is assimilated into the target language by domestication. He proposed and advocated foreignization translation strategy or "resistance strategy", emphasizing that the translation should maintain the flavor of the foreign language text and let readers feel the exotic customs. This kind of translation strategy is not only helpful for the translator to "manifest" in translation, but also more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement in the context of world cultural integration.

Contrary to the traditional view, hold that foreignization translation is a kind of recreation, and there is no strict boundary between creation, translation and research. The original is not self-made, but the author uses the long-standing cultural materials, after reorganization, according to some values. Different cultural places are the places for readers to understand. Therefore, Venuti believes that translation should not deny the necessity of "reserving differences" under the pretext of "seeking common ground". He believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness, on the contrary, it is "the misuse of faithfulness". It will not only lose some characteristics of the original language, but also add new things. As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed..

'''2.4The Limitations of Foreignization Translation Theory'''

Translation is an activity of cross language and cultural communication, but the premise that can not be ignored is that the source language and the target language are different in ideology, values, habitual expression, logical thinking and so on. Venuti's foreignization strategy is to resist cultural hegemony when translating a weak culture into a strong one. For the weak culture and the marginalized and excluded culture, when they are translated into the strong culture by means of foreignization, the strategy is undoubtedly the best way to resist the strong culture and values and express ideas and culture. However, when a strong culture is translated into a weak culture in the same way, foreignization translation is likely to play a role in boosting the flames. In the face of superior British and American cultures, foreignized translation may subvert the norms of the target language, destroy the target language and the target language culture, or become the accomplice of cultural colonialists inadvertently.

Although foreignization translation reflects the characteristics of the source language and has positive significance for cultural communication, it imposes the language system and cultural phenomena in the source language on the target readers. For ordinary readers, without familiar language expression and the same cultural knowledge background, reading foreignization translation of foreign text will not only feel that the translation is obscure and difficult to understand, but also will gradually alienate or even exclude the foreign text. In this way, foreign texts will not be accepted by the public and can only be shelved.

Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.

The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.

==='''Ⅲ.My Thought of "Visibility"&"Invisibility" in Translation Behavior'''===
Venuti believes that in order to translate a good work, the translator must eliminate his sense of racial and cultural superiority, and try to retain the
language style of the original text, so that the target language readers can be exposed to the original foreign language and culture, so as to promote the language and cultural exchange between countries. His foreignization translation strategy can make readers better understand foreign language characteristics, foreign culture, local customs, traditional customs and aesthetic habits.

By reading foreign versions, readers can learn different ways of thinking and language expression, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their own language and cultural knowledge. With the continuous development and evolution of language, foreignization translation plays an important role in promoting cultural exchange and absorbing vocabulary and language structure from different countries. It is precisely because of foreignization translation that many foreign words, such as sofa, salon, clone, generation gap, hot spot and so on, are often used in newspapers, magazines and literary works, which greatly enriches our language and culture. And the words developed from Chinese, such as kowtow, Taichi and kungfu, also have a firm foothold in English dictionaries. Under the background of world cultural integration, this kind of translation strategy is more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement.

The purpose of vernuti's foreignization translation is to pursue cultural diversity. This strategy can effectively resist the interference and tampering of British and American cultures on the inequality of weak cultures, so as to curb ethnocentrism and cultural hegemony. At the same time, he claims that the translator's "manifestation" is of positive significance to the affirmation of the translator's value and to the improvement of the translator's status.
However, foreignization translation is not the best way to be universally accepted, and there are also limitations. Foreignization translation requires too much knowledge of readers and is not suitable for translating non literary texts. The strategy adopted in translation plays an important role in the translation, which determines what kind of translation will be produced in the end. Domestication translation and foreignization translation have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they play an irreplaceable role in each other. Therefore, in practice, no matter what translation strategy the translator chooses, he should consider the differences between readers' receptivity, text type and ideology, and strive to find a balance between different languages and cultures to achieve the best effect of equal communication.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===
Throughout the history of western translation, we find that, in addition to the special historical period, the translator has been gradually pushed from behind the scenes to the front of the screen. The traditional translation theory holds that translators must abide by the principle of faithfulness, and there is only one correct translation. In this way, translators begin to become "invisible people". People ignore that translators are independent individuals in social life and have different understanding of the world, just like everyone else. Translation is a subjective activity. Translators play an important role in intercultural communication in the process of translation. Therefore, we should consider the translator's subjectivity in translation studies.

===Reference===

Chen, Fukang.[陈福康].(1992).中国译学理论史稿[M].上海外语教育出版社.(4):28-31

Guo,Jianzhong.[郭建中].(2000).当代美国翻译理论[C].湖北教育出版社.(6):31-22

Shi,Jianwei.[施建伟].(1999).林语堂传[M].十月文艺出版社.(8):23-24.

Chen,Dehong/Zhang,nanfeng.[陈德鸿,张南峰].(2000)西方翻译理论精选[M].香港城市大学出版社.(3)25-21

Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M]. Pinter Publishers.(3)26-13

Lefevere,Andre.Translation,(1992a).Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M]. Routledge.（6）28-4

==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin 202070080591 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.

===Key words===
business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation

===摘要===

随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。

===关键词===

商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译

===Introduction===

Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)

Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also rising, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract. (Jin Di 1998，115)

This paper mainly includes three chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.
The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)

The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.
The third chapter is the main part of the article, namely the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===

This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively.

This chapter first introduces the definition and categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====

As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)

As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been highly valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for avoiding trade frictions effectively. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)

However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. Since the oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====
Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 26)

Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contract, processing contract, foreign labor contract, and agency agreement, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 26)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)

Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====

English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)

English business contract style is solemn with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====

As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)

As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. For the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)

First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaic words most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)

In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. Strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)

Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. And his is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)

However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the divergences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)

Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledges and terminologies. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====

Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc.
The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)

Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc.
The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. And they are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed at the beginning, the middle or the end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)

In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, while interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)

Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the behavior agent and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====

The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure. In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)

The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly revealed in textual cohesion and textual structure. In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repeating words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)

The discourse structure of Chinese is basically the same with that of English business contracts, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)

This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===

This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.

This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principles to business contract translation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====

Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 )

Nida first proposed the “dynamic equivalence” theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely “formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 )--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)

Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translationese. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.

After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced “dynamic equivalence” with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of “function”.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)

On the question of which level of equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)

In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into “maximum functional equivalence” and “minimum functional equivalence” since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called “maximum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while “minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====

Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)

At abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86)
Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)

Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86)
Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on 'domestication' and 'foreignization' from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)

At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward “equivalence theory” on the basis of “functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of “functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using “functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====

At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)

At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the original contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)

Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. All of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===

This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)

This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter discusses the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====

Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)

Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In specific translation processes, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====

The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)

The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledges and terminologies, which are big obstacles for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1:“The balance 80% (Eighty percent) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties.”

译文：“合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360天予以支付。”

Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression. (Liao Ying 2005, 23)

Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”

译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”

In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 34)

Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only).”

译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”

In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained. (Liao Ying 2005, 43)

=====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====

Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)

Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contracts are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.”

译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”

In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it. (Liao Ying 2005, 50)

Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows:

译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。

In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 53)

Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.

译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。

In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 63)

=====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====

“Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)

“Functional Equivalence” emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer.

译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。

Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.”

译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”

In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style. (Miao Xipu 2011, 113)

=====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====

English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)

English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words' meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”

译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”

In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 83)

Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.

译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。

In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)

====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====

Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)

Cliches are commonly used in official documents and usually have fixed translation methods. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====

There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)

There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginnings and ends of them. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”

译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”

Example2: This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument.

译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。

Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 140)

=====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====

Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)

Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively show the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below:

译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同：

Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion.

译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。

From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example. (Miao Xipu 2011, 158)

=====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====

Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)

Long sentences usuallly contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product.

译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。

This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. (Miao Xipu 2011, 190)

Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld.

译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。

This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents. (Miao Xipu 2011, 192)

Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion.

译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。

This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. (Liao Ying 2005, 103)

====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====

The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)

A text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====

Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)

Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, strongly reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example:
Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term.

译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。

Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence. (Liao Ying 2005, 213)

=====3.3.2 Text Format=====

As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)

As a kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Contract No: ××××××

Date: Aug. ××,2013

The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××)

Legal Address: ××××××

Representative: ××××××

Tel/Fax: ××××××

The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××)

Legal Address: ×××××

Representative: ××××××

Tel/Fax: ××××××

译文：合同编号：××××××

日期：2013年8月×号

买方：××××××（以下简称××××）

注册地址：××××××

代表人：××××××

电话/传真：××××××

卖方：××××××（以下简称××××）

注册地址：××××××

代表人：××××××

电话/传真：××××××

Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)

Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of translation and original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:
In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:
In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of language expression in translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

As to language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research. (JIn Di 1998, 310)

Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research should be broadened in the future. (JIn Di 1998, 310)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Reference===

[1] Beekman, J. & John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974.

[2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.

[3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.

[4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.

[5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.

[6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.

[7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.

[9] Dun Guangang 顿官刚. (2002). 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译 [Characteristics and Translation of Business English Vocabulary]. 山东外语教学 Shandong Foreign Language Teaching Journal (1) 112-114.

[10] Jin Di 金堤. (1998). ''等效翻译探索''[Translation Theory and Practice Series]. Beijing; China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司.

[11] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1998). ''文体与翻译''[English Varities and Translation]. Beijing: China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司.

[12] Liao Ying 廖瑛. (2005). ''实用公关英语''[Practical English PublicRelations]. Shanghai: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经济贸易大学出版社.

[13] Ma Huijuan 马会娟. (2005). 论商务文本翻译标准多元化 [On Diversification of Business Text Translation Standards]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 24-154.

[14] Miao Xipu 苗锡璞. (2011). 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译 [Business English Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory]. 内蒙古财经学院学报 Journal of Inner Mongolia (1)78-238.

[15] Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史''[A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

[16] Wang Yang 汪洋. (2009). 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧 [The Lexical and Syntactic Features of Business Contract and its Translation]. 科技文汇 The Science Education Article Collects (2) 13-47.(serial number can be deleted)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie 202070080626 MTI英语笔译==

===Abstract===
In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.

===Key words===
Identity of translator, Translation activities, Roles of today’s translator

===题目===
论翻译活动中译者的身份

===摘要===
翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。

===关键词===
译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色

===Introduction===
It is vital for translators to play roles well in the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and much attention should be paid to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.

===1.The Importance and Necessity of valuing the issue of translator's identity===
Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operations, cultural characteristics, artistic creations, aesthetic standards, and humanistic characters. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）

The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. The translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new look, but also decide which new look to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated works. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.（Zhong and Zhou, 2006）

===2.Different Kinds of Roles Translators Have played in History===
====2.1 The Identity of Translator Under the Source Language Centralism====
Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meaning and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.

=====2.1.1 Translator as a Servant=====
There are certain common cognition and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the "servant role" both in the East and the West.

John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the "slave" can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）

American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.

Yang Jiang also said in her book ''Experience of Failures-Trial Translation'' "At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation." (Jin and Huang, 2019)

The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so the translator is like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restore the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings to meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations.

Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public to translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of "seeing things but not people". Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.

=====2.1.2 Translator as An Invisible Person=====
One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's "invisibility" and "visibility" have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both "invisibility" or "visibility" are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.

Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph ''The Translators Invisibility'' A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. And the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)

Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and stated in the article ''The Translation of Lin Shu'' that "The highest standard of literary translation is 'sublimation'." In translation, if you can not only not show the traces of being blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it will meet requirements of "sublimation". In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as "the transmigration of souls" of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）

The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph ''Les Belles Infideles'' "The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can't even feel its existence."

The "invisible" identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the "transparency" of the translation and the "invisibility" of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's "invisibility" has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）

=====2.1.3 Translator as a Painter=====
Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting. In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement, “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.

====2.2The Identity of Translator Under the Translator Centralism====
In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasized the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators.

=====2.2.1 Translator as a Manipulator=====
The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put "loyalty" and "faithfulness" in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text.

=====2.2.2 Translator as a Writer=====
Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power.

Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value. They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.

=====2.2.3 Translator as a Conqueror=====
As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror.

=====2.2.4 The Translator's "Independent" Status=====
Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.

=====2.2.5 Translator as a Creative Rebel=====
The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange.（Escarpit, 1987）On the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.

=====2.2.6 Translator as a Language Quality Controller(Li and He, 2018)=====
In recent years, with the development of the world economy and internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.

===3.The Features of the Changes of Translator’s Identity and Its Complexity===
====3.1 The Identity of Translators Changed from Invisible to Visible, from Subordinate to Dominant, from Author-centered to Translator-centered. ====
At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of "invisible man", "slave", "servant" and "painter". The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized.

Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as "manipulator", "writer", "creative rebel", "conqueror “and so on.

Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as "language quality controller", "learners of new technology and new knowledge" and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity.

Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles". On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.

====3.2 The Identity and Status of Translators are Closely connected with the Era ====
Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan "women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language" emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of "women" in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals.

====3.3 Complexity of Translation Activities and the Identity of Translators====
In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because translators different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as "learner of new knowledge and new technology", "selector of the style", and "controller of language quality". Translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.

===4. The Roles of Today’s Translators===
====4.1 Dancers in Shackles. ====
Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, a servant or a master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles. The translator should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.

====4.2 Megaphones of Real Problems.====
Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.

====4.3 Learners who Keep up With the Time.====
Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.

====4.4 Promoters of Cultural Communication.====
Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.

===Conclusion===
The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.

===References===
[1] Venuti (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility'': London and New York: Routledge.

[2] Robinson, D (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained'': Manchester: St.Jerome Publishing.

[3] Robert Escarpit埃斯卡皮，罗贝尔(1987).''文学社会学-罗•埃斯卡皮文论选''[Literary Sociology-Selected Essays by Ro Escapip]:Hang Zhou:Zhejiang People's Publishing House杭州：浙江人民出版社.

[4] Lefevere, Andre (2010). ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame'': Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

[5]Zhong Weihe仲伟合、Zhou Jing周静（2096），译者的极限与底线-试论译者主体性与译者的天职[The Translator's Limits and Bottom Line-On the Translator's Subjectivity and the Translator's Duty]，Foreign language and foreign language teaching外语与外语教学（07）：42-46

[6]Tan Zaixi谭载喜（1991），''西方翻译简史''[A Brief History of Western Translation]，Beijing:Commercial Press北京：商务印书馆：153

[7]Xu Jun许钧（2003），''翻译论''[Translation theory]，Wu Han:Hubei Education Press武汉：湖北教育出版社

[8]Yang Wuneng杨武能（2003），再谈文学翻译主题[Re-discussion on Literary Translation]，Chinese translation中国翻译（03）

[9]Lihui李晖，Hao Siyuan郝思源（2018），计算机辅助翻译中的译者身份研究[Research on Translator's Identity in Computer Aided Translation]，Campus English校园英语（17）

[10]Qian Zhongshu钱钟书（1984），林殊的翻译[Lin Shu's translation]，Beijing Commercial Press北京商务印书馆

[11]Yao Yaping姚亚平（1996），''中国当代修辞学''[Chinese Contemporary Rhetoric]，Guang Zhou:: Guangdong Education Press广州：广东教育出版社：37

[12]Jin Shenghua金圣华，Huang Guobin黄国斌（1996），''因难见巧-名家翻译经验谈''[It's Hard to See Cleverness-A Discussion on Famous Translation Experience]，HongKong:Sanlian Bookstore Co., Ltd.香港：三联书店有限公司

==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang 202070080635 Interpretation英语口译==
<center>顾东方 Gu Dongfang </center>

===Abstract===
In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization .

In The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.
===Key words===
domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies

===摘要===
在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。

===关键词===
归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略

=== Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===
Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.

Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author". In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.（Wang Ying 2007）

===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===
Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms "literal translation" and "free translation" are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be "expressive" and "elegant".

Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored.

Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 06:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression.

Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, "A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original". Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu.

Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original.

Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language.

There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice.

Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.(Wang Ying 2007)

===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===

===The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===
The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.

At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the translation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.

The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of "domestication". He said: "The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is." This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of "foreignization" .

In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the "invisibility" of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.(Liu Ping 2008)

===Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===
The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.

At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers.

The translator should not focus on how to be "faithful to the original", but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.
With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was "I'd rather be faithful than smooth", and advocated "preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible" and "the need for exoticism".

After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, "foreignization" has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that "Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary".(Liu Ping 2019)

===Domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===

====The relationship between culture and language====

In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system.

The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context.

Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.（Wang Hongwei 2002）

==== Translatability and untranslatability of cultures====
On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that "all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces.

In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other." It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, "Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication." Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.

On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase "客上天然居，居然天客" is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.(Wang Hongwei 2007)

====Factors influencing cultural translation strategies====

=====Motives and objectives of translation=====

Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods

=====Text type=====

Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed.

The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term "documentary translation" is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the "strength" and "clarity" of the message. " in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language.

Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve "strength" and "clarity". Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written.

Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible.

This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.(Wang Hongwei2007)

=====Acceptance by readers=====
In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader.

This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that "Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly."(Wang Hongwei2007)

===Cultural Schools of Translation===--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of "Cultural Turn of Translation", which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture.

In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong "revolutionary" element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be "subversive" to the previous translation theories.

This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity.

Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people.

For example, Lv Jun proposes that "translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.(Wang Hongwei2007)

====Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation====
标题大写--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: "The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of "accuracy", "readability" and "acceptability". (Zhou Yongkun 2019)

例一：常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。

Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.

“螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means "following the majority of people to speak or act". A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero" is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning "only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines". Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: "Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore", which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn.

The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit

例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。

There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.

Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, "Xishi" and "Chanjuan", to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate "Xishi" and "Chanjuan", nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties.

Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.(Zhou Yongkun 2019)

In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.

5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation
注意标题格式--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion.

With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms "internet", "gene", "blue print", "blue print" and "blue print" are used to refer to the "Internet", "gene", "blue print" and "blue print". "Time is money", "ivory tower", "washroom".... (crocodile tears), "black humor" , and "qi gong" ), "taijiquan" , "kong fu" , "typhon”

These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.
（Wang Ying 2007）
例一.打破铁饭碗

Break the”iron rice bowl”

"Iron rice bowl" is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare "rice bowl" to an occupation, while "iron rice bowl" refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of "domestication", but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.

例二.下海

A.to jump into the sea of business

B.To turn professional

In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.

Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the "cold shoulder"? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.

例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”

A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”

B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”

Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, "God" is replaced by "Heavenly Father," which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture.

However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.

The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.（Wang Ying 2007）

===Conclusion===
With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of "foreign" translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of "cultural globalization".

It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to "alienation" translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts. (Xiong Bing 2003)

===Reference===
Wang Ying王瑛. "跨文化翻译中的归化和异化." 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.

Zhou Yongkun周永堃. "归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例." 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.

Wang Hongwei王红卫. "跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略." 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.

Xiong Bing熊兵. "文化交流翻译的归化与异化." 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.

Liu Ping刘苹. "中国翻译史上的归化和异化." 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.

no numbers, attention to the detailed request on the bottom of the home page--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of "Political Equivalence" 202070080585 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
With the development of globalization, the political exchanges among countries is more frequent, and the translation of political discourse has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. The translation of political discourse is challenging, not only because it is related to important issues such as the relationship between countries, national status and political attitudes, but also because political vocabulary is developmental and new words are constantly coming into the political vocabulary, and some political words will add new connotations with the development of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the "Political Equivalence" based on Eugene Nida's "Functional Equivalence" theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of "political", "dynamic" and "balanced". On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of "Political Equivalence".

===Key words===
political equivalence; Chinese political discourse; translation strategies

===摘要===
随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。

===关键词===
政治等效; 中国政治话语; 翻译策略

===1. Introduction of Background===

Political discourse is a vehicle of communication or one kind of discourse behaviors used to articulate a country's foreign policy, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including both oral and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).

===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===

This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to promote the political communication between countries and show the country's political attitudes, theories and policies to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only an obligatory task for translators, but also of great significance to the development of translation studies.

===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===

The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it faithfully to the target language. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are quite few equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. In particular, Chinese political discourse is often presented metaphorically which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of the times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.

===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===

(1)The proposal and connotation of the "political equivalence" standard

In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term "韬光养晦" which led to the propaganda "China threat theory". Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of "political equivalence" for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political ideas of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).

In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the "political equivalence" translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic. Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to maintain a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on any one of them, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. As political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations.(Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35)

In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of "political equivalence + aesthetic representation" on the basis of the translation standard of "political equivalence" (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. In addition to meeting the requirements of "political equivalence" mentioned above, this standard also requires to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account.

In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of "political equivalence + image representation" based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing "image reproduction" and "aesthetic reproduction" is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text.

In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic events in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the "political equivalence" standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize "political equivalence"(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).

(2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida

"Firstly, the 'equivalence' emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or the writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the concept of 'dynamic' proposed by Nida in 'functional equivalence' theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience "(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).

In a word, the translation standard of "political equivalence" is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, providing theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.

===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===

First of all, translators should grasp not only the meaning of the original text, but also the political intention of the speaker or the writer, because sometimes the literal meaning of Chinese words in the political discourse cannot fully represent the real intention of the speaker or the writer.What translators should do is to learn more about the related background knowledge before translating and keep pace with the worldwide current events in daily life, and choose the proper translation strategies according to specific situations to make the translation be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or the writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of "political equivalence".(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Secondly, translators should treat both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaking country and the receiving country. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's political thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country, which requires the proper selection and use of the target language. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve "political equivalence" and even cause political events.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Thirdly, translators should know well about the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies.As we all know, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, the corresponding words in English and Chinese may have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Fourthly, translators should also know well about the differences between the two languages.In English, there are many grammatical rules different from from those of Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. If translators deal with these special expressions improperly, these expressions will hinder the realization of the "political equivalence" in translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Fifthly, to achieve "political equivalence" in translating political discourse, translation strategies should not be single, rigid but flexible and diversified. In addition, the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text and the original or even several extended connotations of the words in it,instead,translators should recognize the real connotations of the political terms according to the context and different occasions. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or the writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

lastly, translators should ensure the political correctness in the translation of political discourse using their knowledge reserves. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the "minefields" of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to "translation storm" and affect the "political equivalence" of translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

===6. Translation Strategies under The Standard of Political Equivalence===

Under the guidance of the standard of "political equivalence", the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.

(1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse

Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in "现代化" and "城镇化", so are abbreviations like "‘十四五’规划", "四个自信", etc., and four-character phrases such as "和平共处", "和而不同", etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as "‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打", among which "老虎(tiger)" and "苍蝇(flies)" refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. Therefore, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the "political equivalence"standard.

(2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)

① supplement

The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. When Chinese political terms are translated for foreigners, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.

The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplementing relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-2025) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplementing detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”

②Omission

English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are quite few equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being faithful to the original text.

The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasis, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available without changing the meaning. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.

(3) Translation strategies for metaphor

Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).

Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):

① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities

Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.

For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as "Long March of the new era". The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and its people. On the one hand, the literal translation of "The Long March" retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.

② Substitution of the metaphorical entities

After all, the differences between languages far outweigh the similarities, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text by using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead the reader. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.

For example, Foreign Ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And the word“scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers will not understand it.

③literal translation+explanation

In some other cases, where either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation + explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only maintains the cultural characteristics of the source language while enabling English readers to be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.

For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by the Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.

④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly

Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may encounter the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first ipriority to convey the correct political implication.

For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Since rice is the staple food in most parts of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down-to-earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of "rice bag" or "vegetable basket" without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.

===7. Conclusion===

From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, it can be seen that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of "political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic.

The translation of political discourse has its unique characteristics and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful in choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.

===8. References===

楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.

吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of "political equivalence"][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.

龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究["Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence" : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.

杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of "Political Equivalence" in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea "韬光养晦" as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.

杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of "Political Equivalence"-- Taking the translation of "韬光养晦" as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.

杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: "Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction" -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.

杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of "Political Equivalence plus"][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.

杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between "political equivalence" and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to "One Belt And One Road" period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.

==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu 202020080666 俄语语言文学==

<center>张虎 Zhang Hu 202020080666</center>

===Abstract===

Russian proverbs are produced under the specific cultural background and have rich cultural connotations. They are an important part of Russian language and culture. However, there are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese, and the language forms of Russian and Chinese proverbs have their own characteristics. This chapter attempts to classify Russian proverbs and explore the translation methods and Strategies of Russian proverbs.(This chapter only discusses the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs and the English translation of proverbs is for reference only.)

===Key words===
Russian proverb，classification，Chinese translation methods，translation strategies

===题目===
俄语谚语的分类、汉译方法及策略

===摘要===
俄语谚语于特定的文化背景下产生，具有丰富的文化内涵，是俄语语言文化的重要组成部分。而俄汉两族文化差异较大，俄汉谚语语言形式各具特色，俄语谚语的翻译问题成为一个难题。本文试对俄语谚语进行分类，探究俄语谚语的翻译方法及翻译策略。

===关键词===
俄语谚语；分类；汉译方法；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===
Proverbs are a genre of folk literature（Wang Yanrong 2013,114) , and they are simple, popular and meaningful fixed sentences commonly used by the people. Generally speaking, proverbs are rhythmic in form, including various life phenomena in content, rich in educational significance, vividly reflecting the cultural connotations and characteristics of a nation, and are the result of wisdom of the broad masses of people and the essence of a national language（Zhou Changyu 2006,5). Therefore, understanding proverbs is an effective way to understand a nation. Proverbs of different nationalities have their own characteristics. The translation of proverbs among different nationalities has become an important issue in translation studies. This chapter attempts to explore the translation methods and principles of Russian proverbs.

===2.Classification of Russian proverbs===
The formation of Russian proverbs is inseparable from the production, life, customs, religion, culture and history of the nation, and has a distinctive national style. The Russian and Chinese languages belong to different language systems, and there is a big difference in the way of expression. In order to fully understand Russian proverbs and grasp the translation methods of Russian proverbs, this chapter first compares Russian and Chinese proverbs, and divides Russian proverbs into three categories based on the degree of consistency between Russian and Chinese proverbs, namely “complete consistency” and “partial consistency” and “complete inconsistency”（Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

====2.1 Complete consistency====

"Complete consistency" means that Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs are completely consistent in terms of thinking and figurative meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese that fully correspond to them. The number of such proverbs is relatively small, but they reflect the cultural commonality between the Russian and Chinese languages, indicating that the two peoples are similar in cognitive mode, thinking mode and personality characteristics between the two countries(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

For example, there is an ancient Chinese proverb in the Biography of Zhao Chongguo, The History of the Former Han Dynasty in ancient my country “百闻不如一见.” The meaning of this sentence is “it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times,” which expresses that hearing more is not as reliable as seeing it. And there is a widely used proverb in Russian “Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать.(Jia Shufen 1996,146)” They are completely consistent and show that the people of the Russian and Han ethnic groups have the same understanding of the importance of “seeing with their own eyes.”

Another example is “Из искры возгорится пламя” in Russian. It was first written by Decembrists, famous Russian poet, A. I. Odoevsky(А. И. Одоевский) in reply to Pushkin’s support of Decembrists’ revolution, and was later written by Lenin. The application in Iskra is well known and circulated. The Chinese counterpart “星星之火, 可以燎原(A single spark can start a prairie fire)” is widely known and become a proverb because of Mao Zedong's articles(Chen Ying 2000,89).

Similarly, "Беда не приходит одна." and "祸不单行(Misfortune never come alone)(Jia Shufen 1996,6)", "Сытый голотного не разумеет." and "饱汉不知饿汉饥(Fatty people do not know hungry people are hungry)(Jia Shufen 1996,378)", "Близкий сосед лучше дальней родни." and "distant relatives are not as good as neighbors", “Одно дерево - не роща, одна птица - нестая” and "孤树不成林，孤鸟不成群(A single tree does not form forests, a lone bird does not form flocks)(Wang Jinhua,Zhang Li 2006,76)", etc., are completely consistent in image and meaning.

====2.2 Partial consistency====
"Partial consistency" means that Russian proverbs are the same or similar in thinking, cultural image or meaning to Chinese proverbs. Such Russian proverbs can find corresponding or related proverbs in Chinese to a certain extent. The large number of such proverbs reflects the differences in the understanding of different things and phenomena between nations(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

For example, the Russian proverb "Расти как грибы после дождя" means "grow like mushrooms after rain", which means that things develop rapidly. Due to factors such as geographical location and natural environment, Russia is rich in mushrooms, and mushrooms grow rapidly after rain in Russia. In the same way, our country's "雨后春笋(bamboo shoots in spring)" have also grown rapidly, becoming a proverb that expresses the rapid development and emergence of things(Chen Ying 2000,90). This pair of Russian and Chinese proverbs uses the same thinking mode and different cultural images to express the same meaning.

Another example is the Russian proverb "Первый блин комом." It means that the first time you make a cake, you will always make a dough, which means that the first attempt is always easy to fail. The "блин" in the proverb is the unique Russian food "Russian pancake", which reflects the distinctive national characteristics. In Chinese, the proverb "三脚难踢，开锣的戏难唱(It's hard to kick the first three feet, and it's hard to sing the gongs)" uses images such as "三脚(three feet)" and "开锣的戏(plays with gongs)" to express that things are difficult at the beginning of attempts, and that "万事开头难(everything is difficult at first)" meaning. The two are very similar in their embodied meanings.
Some other examples included in this category are:

(1)Два медведя в одной берлоте неуживутся. 一个洞穴中不会住两只熊(Two bears in one berlot won't get along)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).

(2)И Москва несразу строилась. 莫斯科不是一下就建成的(And Moscow was not built immediately)(Chen Ying 2000,89).

(3)Гром не грянет, мужик не перекрестится. 不打雷，农夫不祷告(Thunder won't strike, the man won't cross)(Yang Min 2017, 202).

(4)Скарть со стола, и дружба сплыла.桌布一撤，友谊全无 (Scrap off the table and friendship floated away)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).

These Russian proverbs correspond to the Chinese "一山不容二虎(The mountain cannot accommodate two tigers)", "一口吃不成个胖子(You can't make a fat man with one bite)(Chen Ying 2000,90)", "临时抱佛脚(Temporary holding a Buddha's feet)", and "人走茶凉(No sooner has the person gone away than the tea cools down)(Lei Yumei 2014,114)". These sets of corresponding Russian and Chinese proverbs have different cultural images, but the meaning is the same.

====2.3 Complete inconsistency====
There are some Russian proverbs that have nothing to do with Chinese proverbs either in image or meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be classified as "completely inconsistent"(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114). The Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have their own unique national cultures. The differences in political economy, geographical environment, climate characteristics, vegetation, animals, historical allusions, living customs, religious beliefs, etc. have given birth to a series of ethnic proverbs(Yang Min 2017, 200).

For example, the literal translation of the Russian proverb "Дело-табак" is "事关烟草（it's about tobacco.）" What does it mean? It turned out that the boatmen on the Volga River used to hang tobacco bags around their necks to prevent the tobacco from getting wet. This sentence was used to remind people that the water depth is close to the neck. It has now been used to express "things are bad, the situation is not good". (Chen Ying 2000,90)

Another example is the Russian proverb "Хвалилась синица, что море зажжет." literally translated as "山雀吹嘘要把大海点燃(The tit boasted to light the sea)". This proverb comes from an allusion in Krylov’s fable: "The tit yelled everywhere that it was going to burn the sea. The news reached the animals' ears. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. "This proverb satirizes those who like to brag, but can't get things done. Such ethnic-specific proverbs are sometimes difficult to understand, and it is necessary to trace their roots to understand their meaning(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

These three types of Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs have different levels of consistency in content, and the degree of difficulty of understanding also varies. Therefore, in the translation process, it is necessary to select one or a combination of multiple translation methods for translation according to different proverb classifications to achieve the purpose of "prescribe the right medicine".

===3. Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs===
Chinese and foreign translation theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" to Qian Zhongshu's "Concept of Transcendence"; from Qu Qiubai's "Concept of Equivalence" to "Functional Equivalence" by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A•Nidar Or "dynamic equivalence". We can see that the central point in their proposition is that the translation should faithfully express the meaning of the original text and reflect the appearance of the original text(Sheng Yichao 2009,110).

On the basis of this important point of view, we analyze the classification of Russian proverbs and apply various methods comprehensively in order to obtain a more perfect translation. Specifically, there are the following methods: translation method, set translation method, literal translation method, free translation method, borrowed translation method, and added word and annotation method(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

====3.1 Equivalent translation(对译法)====
"Equivalent translation" is directly using Chinese proverbs corresponding to Russian proverbs for translation. When using this translation method, the information conveyed by the literal and image meanings of Russian and Chinese proverbs should be the same. This translation method can correctly convey the pragmatic information contained in the image of the original language, enhance the readability of the translation, while completely retaining the rhetorical color of the original language, so that readers can understand the original text most accurately(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

This translation method is applicable to the "completely consistent" Russian proverbs mentioned above. For the Russian proverbs listed in 1.1, the existing proverbs in Chinese proverbs can be directly used as translations, and for example:

(1)Век живи, век учись. 活到老,学到老。(Live and learn.)

(2)Капля камень точит. 滴水穿石。(Constant dripping wears away a stone.)

(3)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。(Strike while the iron is hot.) (Jia Shufen 1996,135)

====3.2 Corresponding and literal translation====

In the Translatology Dictionary , the translation method “corresponding” is interpreted as the mutual translation of synonymous idioms. If the content, form, and rhetoric color of the target language roughly match the target language, then it is possible to adopt this method(Fang Mengzhi 2003,111). If the images and metaphors are the same or similar, this translation method is more appropriate; while the literal translation method is based on the form of the original text, which retains the metaphor, image and national characteristics of Russian proverbs. These two methods can be used simultaneously in translation practice.

“Corresponding” is suitable for the translation of "partially consistent" Russian proverbs introduced in 1.2 of this chapter. "Partially consistent" Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese with corresponding proverbs with different images but the same or similar meaning. At this time, if the “equivalent translation” is adopted, readers will be misunderstood and the translated language will lose the national characteristics of Russian proverbs. Therefore, when translating such proverbs, the original image should be kept as much as possible and the expression form of Chinese proverbs should be used. In addition to the examples already mentioned above, there are similar ones:

(1)Ложка дёгтю в бочку мёду. 一勺焦油坏了一桶蜜(A spoonful of tar breaks a bucket of honey), referring to the Chinese proverb "一粒老鼠屎坏了一锅汤(A mouse poop breaks a pot of soup)"(Jia Shufen 1996,145)

(2) Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟(No fire, no smoke)， refers to the Chinese proverb "无风不起浪(No wind, no waves)"(Jia Shufen 1996,240).

(3) Шила в мешке не устаишь. 口袋藏不住坠子(Pendant cannot be hidden in the pocket）, refers to the Chinese proverb "纸包不住火(Paper cannot keep fire)"(Jia Shufen 1996,303).

Such Russian proverbs refer to the expression form of Chinese proverbs. On the basis of retaining the language structure characteristics of Russian proverbs, they do not lose the national cultural characteristics of Russian proverbs. They are successful translations. “Corresponding” uses the expression form of Chinese proverbs to make the translation easier to be accepted by readers. While using the translation method “corresponding”, in fact, the literal translation method is also used. The two are closely combined to maximize the original image and style(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

====3.3 Free translation and loan translation====
The national cultures of China and Russia are quite different. When Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs use completely different figurative images, the figurative images in the literal original text will make the translation difficult to understand and accept, or cause misunderstandings. Using “corresponding” to translate Russian proverbs may cause deviation in understanding. In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text, free translation can be used for translation at this time. Free translation refers to a translation method that readjusts the structure of the original text on the basis of the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the original text clearly in a new way of expression.

For example, the Russian proverb "Язык до Киева довезёт. 舌头（语言）把你带到基辅。(The tongue (language) brings you to Kiev)" Kiev is an ancient city in the former Soviet Union. In ancient times, Kiev was called the mother city of the Russians and one of the most famous cities (Chen Ying 2000,90). Therefore, as long as you ask for directions, you will find Kiev. Therefore, this Russian proverb actually emphasizes the importance of "язык". The literal translation will obviously make readers puzzled. However, it can be translated as "有嘴走遍天下（With a mouth to travel all over the world）" through free translation, which is more appropriate and easy to understand(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

"На воре шапка горит(Jia Shufen 1996,176)." is literally translated as "小偷的帽子着火(The thief's hat is on fire)". If you don’t understand the source of the proverb, you cannot understand its meaning. This proverb originated from a story: Someone found a thief stealing, so he shouted in the crowd, "The thief's hat is on fire." When the thief heard it, he involuntarily looked at his head and exposed himself and was arrested. . Through free translation, this proverb can be translated as "the thief has a guilty conscience", so that the meaning of the original text can be more accurately conveyed to the reader(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

There are always commonalities and individualities in Russian and Chinese national cultures. Therefore, as mentioned in 1.2, there are cases where Russian and Chinese proverbs express the same or similar meanings in different cultural images. In this case, when the differences between Russian and Chinese proverbs are too prominent, you can also consider loan translation to translate, that is, by analyzing the internal meaning of Russian proverbs, borrowing Chinese proverbs with different images but expressing the same meaning for translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). E.g:

(1) Семь раз примерь, один раз отрежь.三思而后行(Jia Shufen 1996,345)。(Look before you leap.)

(2) Всякая лисица свой хвост хвалит. 王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸(Jiang Xiuhua 1999,166)。(Every cook praises his own broth.)

(3) Горбатого могила исправит. 禀性难移。(Human nature is hardly changed.)(Ye Fanglai 1987,102)

Using this translation method, the translation is not exactly the same as the original, and the content and form of the two are also very different. This distinguishes the loan translation method from the equivalent translation counterpart translation method and the “corresponding”. In fact, the loan translation method can be regarded as a variant of the free translation method, because the loan translation is actually an expression made by re-adjusting the structure of the original text on the basis of understanding the meaning of the original text. But it should also be distinguished from free translation, because the loan translation method borrows the proverbs already in Chinese. This method has lost the image in the original proverb and cannot be called a perfect translation method. It should be avoided as much as possible(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

====3.4 Addition and annotation====

Addition and annotation are compensatory translation methods, which supplement and reveal the cultural information in the original text.(Wang Yanrong 2013,114), the two explanations in the translatology dictionary are "to add some words according to the needs of semantics, rhetoric or syntax in translation, so as to faithfully and smoothly express the ideological content of the original text." And a translator's compensation method in order to fully express the original semantics and style in the process of translation is to help achieve the equivalence of translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2003,111)

Many Russian proverbs may produce pragmatic failure after literal translation. In order to avoid this failure, we can use the method of adding words or adding notes to introduce the image and cultural background of the original text in the form of annotation. This method makes the translation more vivid and intuitive, while retaining the image of the original text, showing the national characteristics of Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

For example, the Russian proverb "И на солнце есть пятна." is literally translated as "太阳上也有黑点。(There are black spots on the sun.)" This translation is obviously difficult for readers to accept and understand, but if the Chinese proverb "金无足赤，人无完人(Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)" with the same meaning is added after it to reveal its connotation, “太阳上也有黑点—金无足赤，人无完人。(There are also black spots on the sun—Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)” This form of translation can allow readers to understand the meaning of the proverb clearly and keep the original image in Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

Another example is "В Тулу со своим самоваром не ездят." literally translated as "不要带着茶炊去图拉。(Don't take a samovar to Tula.)" This Russian proverb has a strong Russian national color. Tula was once famous throughout the country for the production of samovars, and was the center of Russia's metallurgical industry and metal manufacturing. Taking the samovar to Tula, which is rich in samovars, actually means "make an unnecessary move". This proverb is very vivid. Russians can naturally understand and understand its meaning, but as Chinese readers who do not understand Russian culture, it may be difficult to understand the literal translation of this proverb.

Therefore, this proverb can be translated as "带着茶炊去图拉—多此一举(Bring a samovar to Tula--make an unnecessary move)", or add a note in brackets: "Tula is famous for making samovars." In this way, readers can not only understand the meaning of proverbs, but also intuitively feel the cultural elements of Russia. It can said as killing two birds with one stone(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). This translation method is often used in the situations described in 1.3. Examples also include:

（1）За двумя зайцами погонишься ни одного не поймаешь. 一人追双兔，到头两手空—一心不可二用。(One man chases two rabbits, and in the end two hands are empty--no man can do two things at once.)

（2）На языке мёд а в сердце лёд. 嘴上甜似蜜,心里冷若冰—笑里藏刀。(Sweet as honey on the mouth, cold as ice in the heart--hide a dagger in a smile.)

The above-mentioned several Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should not be limited to one of them. We should make a specific analysis according to the specific situation, flexibly use different translation methods, and learn from others' strong points, so as to achieve a harmonious translation.

===4. Translation strategies of Russian proverbs===

Russian proverbs are concise in language, rich in meaning, vivid in image, beautiful in rhythm and strong in national color. It is not easy to translate them into Chinese accurately and vividly. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should pay attention to the translation strategies in addition to the flexible application of various translation methods.

====4.1 Trace the origin and accurately interpret====
There are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese. When interpreting Russian proverbs, translators are likely to stay on the surface of the text and interpret the meaning from the text, resulting in misunderstanding and translation errors. Therefore, when translating Russian proverbs, especially those with historical or national background, we should carefully examine their allusions, trace back to the source, and accurately interpret the hidden meanings of proverbs.

For example, the Russian proverb "Недосол на столе, а пересол на спине." is literally translated as "菜淡了在桌上，菜咸了在背上。(The dish is light on the table, and the dish is salty on the back.)" This proverb can be traced back to the time of serfdom. Salt was a very valuable thing at that time, and those who wasted salt will be punished. Russians usually have salt shakers on their tables. If the dishes are weak, you can add salt at will, but if they are salty, the cook will be punished by whipping his back. Therefore, the basic meaning of the proverb is that if the dish is cooked, salt can be added, and if the dish is salted, the cook will be beaten. (Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun 2008,149)
However, this proverb was once translated as "多一事不如少一事(One thing more is worse than one thing less)" or "宁缺毋滥(It is better to leave a deficiency uncovered than to have it covered without discretion)". This kind of translation is obviously not appropriate. It is "taking the words too literally" without understanding the historical background(Ye Fanglai 1987,101).

Similar proverbs include "Была бы спина, а то будет вина." literally translated as "只要有脊背，就会有过错(As long as there is a back, there will be fault)" , this Russian proverb also contains the cultural image of "back". As mentioned above, whipping the back was a common punishment method at that time. At the same time, since the whipped person violated the discipline, not the law, there was a certain degree of randomness in determining the punishment object and the degree of punishment. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

Therefore, this proverb actually expresses the meaning of "欲加之罪，何患无辞(Give a dog a bad name and hang him)". If you don't know Russian history, you can't understand the meaning of this proverb. Therefore, it is very important to study the allusions of proverbs and understand their deep cultural meanings.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

====4.2 Retain characteristics and respect national culture====
Proverbs are the cultural crystallization of a nation and have distinctive national characteristics. When translating Russian proverbs, attention should be paid to the comprehensive use of multiple translation methods, to maximize the retention of national characteristics, not only to restore the original image and style, but also to reflect the national cultural connotation, while taking into account the reader's understanding and acceptance. At this time, we may use the methods of addition and annotation mentioned above, and try to avoid over-domestication of Russian proverbs, and respect the national culture. We should analyze it in the specific original text and translate it flexibly(Zhou Changyu 2006,42).

For example, the Russian proverb "Не всё коту масленица, бывает и великий пост." is literally translated as "a cat does not celebrate the festival of Marriage every day, and it always has a Lent." Readers who do not understand the Russian national culture may not understand the meaning of this proverb, if you add a comment at this time, “In Russian festivals, the 7-day Maslenitsa can best reflect the traditions of the Russian nation. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

The “Ross-Robs Festival” originated from the Orthodox Church. The 40-day fast in the Orthodox During the period, people are forbidden to eat meat and entertainment. Therefore, in the week before the start of Lent, people indulge in joy and every family pay close attention to eating meat to make up for the ascetic life during the fast period."If the background cultural knowledge contained in the proverb is revealed, readers will be able to more clearly understand the meaning of the proverb "good times will not last long, and a feast is hard to come by".(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

Another example is the proverb "Не учи рыбу плавать. 不要教鱼儿游泳(Don't teach fish to swim)". Some people have translated the proverb as "不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)". This translation borrowed and translated the image in the original text into a well-known allusion(“班门弄斧”) image in Chinese people. The distortion of the cultural connotation in proverbs is excessive domestication, so it is not appropriate.(Zhou Changyu 2006,42)

====4.3 Pay attention to expression and focus on language use====

On the one hand, as a unique language form, proverbs are popular among the people, and they are a kind of spoken language style with the characteristics of spoken language style. Therefore, in the translation of Russian proverbs, the characteristics of easy to understand and easy to speak should also be reflected in the translation; On the other hand, as the famous Russian linguist A. A. Potebnya（А. А. Потебня） said, proverb “is a short literary work”. Proverbs are also a kind of folk literature, which is actually a literary form. We should pay attention to the aesthetic characteristics of proverbs in translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).

For example, if the proverb “Не учи рыбу плавать.” mentioned above is translated as “不要教鱼儿游泳(Don’t teach fish to swim)”, obviously the literal translation method will accurately retain the original metaphorical image while retaining the colloquial nature of the proverb. It is easy to understand and the translation of "不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)(“班门弄斧”is an Chinese allusion)" is blunt and overly written(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).

Another example is "Слово серебро, молчание золото" literally translated as "雄辩是银，沉默是金(eloquence is silver, silence is gold)" to express the phonology in the original text very well and make people read it catchy. If the Chinese proverb "是非只为多开口，烦恼皆因强出头(Right and wrong just for more mouth, worry all because of strong)", although the meaning is the same, it loses the metaphorical image and popularity of the original text; as for the aesthetic characteristics, the translation of the Russian proverb "Красна птица пером, а человек умом." "鸟美在羽毛，人美在头脑(The beauty of birds is in the feathers, and the beauty of people is in the mind.)" This translation adopts the method of literal translation, while preserving the original image, it also restores the structure of the original text and the rhetorical symmetry, which conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original text(Zhou Changyu 2006,44).

===5. Conclusion===
In short, Russian and Chinese are two very different languages, and the proverbs of the two ethnic groups also have their own characteristics in language form. The translation must take into account the unique style, connotation and meaning of the original text at the same time, while maintaining the fluency of sentences, perfect expression, and achieving the harmony and unity of sound, rhyme and meaning. It is by no means easy, and it is a major test for translators. Translators should not only have a thorough understanding of the original text and the cultural background of the original text, and be proficient in tempering words, but also should flexibly use various translation methods, master translation strategies, and strive to accurately express the profound meaning of Russian proverbs.

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[15] Hu Aimin.胡爱民.(1986).也谈俄语谚语和俗语的民族色彩.[Also on the national colors of Russian proverbs and sayings]. 外语与外语教学.[Foreign Languages Teaching]52-54.

==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory 李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学==
<center>李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学 </center>

===Abstract===

In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.

===Keywords===
Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered Theory

===摘要===
在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。

===关键词===
联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论

===1.Introduction===
====1.1.Research Background and Significance====

In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, intercultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures.

This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture''“Translators are allowed more liberties on what one might be tempted to call‘the purely linguistic level,’ certainly if the translation is not meant to‘represent’ the original in the translators' culture, but simply to help translators refine their knowledge of their own language.”(Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4).

As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpreting is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpreting strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.

Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that "in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpreting research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpreting by interpreters" (Liu Yingjun 2014,141- 143).

We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpreting. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpreting studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting setting. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao Xiaomei 2020, 105- 108). However, different interpreting settings have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple settings to interpret.

In addition, many Chinese liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpreting from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and "translator-centered theory". The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.（Wang Shaolong 2020,39-40/Mao Zhen 2020,33-34）

====1.2.Definition of Liaison Interpreting====

Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpreting and one-way interpreting according to the direction of interpreting. The liaison interpreting we discuss here is a typical two-way interpreting. We generally believe that liaison interpreting is a kind of interpreting which is different from conference interpreting and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpreting. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpreting earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,12).

This is the early propositions which business interpreting is equivalent to liaison interpreting, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpreting settings, the connotation of liaison interpreting has been expanded to include various forms of interpreting within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a "tripartite communication" model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14).

Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpreting, liaison interpreting is a "bilateral interpreting" within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpreting, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpreting.

====1.3.Research Method====

Based on the "reader-centered theory" of reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory" of "Eco-translatology", this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpreting.

===2.Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===

====2.1.Reception Aesthetics====
Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term "reception aesthetics" was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school.(Jin Huxiong 2002, 264-267)

Izer once said, "Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature"(Guo Hongan 1997，338-339).

There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the "the horizon of expectations"， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading.(Wang Tong 2020, 198-199)

The second concept is the "response-inviting structure", which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a "text blank" in the text that only the reader can fill.(Jin Huxiong 2002,274)

"Text blank" can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.

====2.2.Translator-Centered Theory====
The concept of "translator-centered theory" is closely related to "Eco-translatology" put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen. "Eco-translatology" is a new concept, and there are still many controversies and misunderstandings about it among Chinese scholars. In the opinion of Leng Yuhong, "If we want to construct a systematic and complete “Eco-translatology Theory”, the first thing to be overturned must be the 'translator-centered'!" (Leng Yuhong 2011, 72-73).

The main reason for his conclusion is that he has a misunderstanding of "translator-centered". Leng Yuhong believes that the "translator-centered" puts the "translator" above the "original text" and the "recipient", and takes the translator to an extreme like “translation-center theory”.

Some other scholars believe that, on the one hand, the "translator-centered theory" fails to break through the dichotomization of subject and object; on the other hand, it is interpreted from the perspective of concrete operation instead of philosophical reasoning. Therefore, it lacks an organic connection with the anti-centrism and equality core contained in the Oriental ecological wisdom.(Luo Dijiang 2017， 65)

Then professor Hu retorted, the "translator-centered" concept, in the process of translation is mainly reveals the "leading" role of the translator in the translation process, specifically refers to the translator in the translation process must first "adapt to" the ecological environment of translation, and then, the translator in according to the ecological environment of translation to decide on the "choice" of translation , which includes the translator "selective adaptation" and "adaptive selection" and so on, all the translation behaviors of translation activity is determined by translator, this is the core and intention of "translator-center theory . In other words, the translation system is pluralistic, and the translator should actively adapt to the environment in the process of translation, instead of destroying the relationship between each subject in the translation system to reach the dominant position. Professor Hu also emphasizes the distinction between "translator-centered theory" and "subjectivity" in order to emphasize the dynamic role that translators can play in translation.(Hu Gengshen 2013, 208, 218-219)

Yin suiqiong also believes that ecological paradigm is not a commonality between translation studies and natural ecosystems, but a feature shared by all social science research systems. Hu said that Yin's erroneous conclusion is based on a misunderstanding of the concept of "paradigm", and that “Eco-translatology” and its "translator-centered theory" are the common beliefs of recent translation scholars, rather than emphasizing that they are unique to translatology and natural ecosystems.(Yin Suiqiong 2017, 56-62/ Hu Gengshen 2017, 63-68)

In addition, there are many arguements about “Eco-translatology” and "translator-centered theory" in China, we think that the “translator-centered theory” under the perspective of “Eco-translatology” not mean that "translator" above the "source language" and "recipients", but hope from the perspective of "translator" thinking about the problems in the translation process and the solution to the problem, emphasizes the "translator" actively adapt to the social scene and positive response to this strategy.

Then, what is the relationship between the "reader-centered theory" of reception aesthetics and the "translator-centered theory" of Eco-translatology studies? We think that the two are dialectical unity, reception aesthetics require the translator to fully consider the recipient's cultural quality and cognitive levels, but completely according to the requirements of the recipient to make the choice of translation strategy and translation quality evaluation is too biased, because recipient's aesthetic of translation products too subjective and lack of professionalism, and "translator-centered theory" advocate that the difficulties encountered in the translation should be solved by translators according to their professional judgment and also encourages translators to seek more change through its own development strategy.

Of course, "reader-centered theory" and "translator-centered theory" are not diametrically opposed, and translator-centered theory also requires translators to consider the needs of recipients of translation products. It can be said that "reader-centered theory" is a reference item of "translator-centered theory", and "translator-centered theory" is a further development of "reader-centered theory".

===3.Positioning of liaison interpreter===
In the field of interpretation, there have always been different opinions on the principle of fidelity of interpretation products: some people believe that "sentence by sentence translation" should be carried out, and interpretation products should be faithful to the original text in form. That is, the interpreter should "be like a megaphone" ; Some people believe that interpreters should take into account the cultural context in which communication takes place, and that interpretation products should be faithful to the "meaning" of the original text, that is, the central meaning expressed by the speaker .(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,153)

However, there are significantly more supporters of the latter than the former. This is similar to the debate on the principle of translation in translation studies: literal translation v.s. free translation. The discussion of translation principles is generally focused on literature. At present, we generally believe that different translation strategies should be adopted according to different literary genres and themes. It is also similar in the study of interpretation. Liaison interpreters should adopt different interpreting strategies according to different interpretation scenes and themes. The difference between liaison interpretation and translation comes from R. Bruce W. Anderson's "tripartite communication" theory.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14）

Liaison interpreters are directly facing customers when interpreting, and their interpreting products will be delivered to customers in a timely manner, so the quality of their translation products depends entirely on customers' judgment at present. So when we think about the role of the liaison interpreters, one of the most important references is what the client expects of the interpreter. In addition, the interpreter acts as a bridge between the two sides in communication, and the role of the liaison interpreter is more prominent than that of other types of interpreters.

Therefore, the positioning of the interpreters on themselves is also very important. In addition, another characteristic that distinguishes liaison interpreters from other types of translators is that liaison interpretation is often in a dynamic and diversified scene, unlike other translators who are only in a single translation setting. Therefore, analysis of the interpreting setting is also a part that cannot be ignored when discussing the role positioning of the interpreter.

====3.1.Client's Expectation of the Interpreter's Role====
From the perspective of reception aesthetics, clients will estimate and expect interpretation products in advance according to their reading experience and aesthetic taste. Donova-Cagigos talked about the measurement and judgment of interpretation quality, and believed that if "faithfulness" could not be quantified, it could only be relevant to specific communicative occasions so the results of the clients expectation investigation, such as the user's preference for the delivery of the main idea over the full translation, can be used as an important criterion for rating accuracy and omission.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，169)

This requires the liaison interpreter to adjust his/her role to the client's expectations. Each user's knowledge base, education level and other aspects of the difference will lead to their expectations of liaison interpreters change. We divide clients' expectations on interpreters into two categories: one is that interpreters are expected to interpret faithfully, neutrally and impartially, without mixing their own interpretation with concise output of source language information; The other is to expect interpreters to add their own explanations through omission, addition and other interpreting techniques when interpreting source language information, so as to make interpreting products better understood.

The role expectations of the above two kinds of clients depend largely on the nature of the clients and the purpose for which the clients accept the interpretation. The first kind of clients who hope interpreter completely follow the principle of "faithfulness" , have a comprehensive understanding of the areas involved in interpretation, they receive interpretation mainly for the purpose of obtaining extended knowledge of known fields or general information, or because of the limitation of interpretation theme requires an interpreter to stay neutral, such as legal interpreting.

In this regard, Collados Aís studied the requirements on the interpretation quality standards of the interpreting clients who are experts and found that the subjects did not give low marks to the content errors in the "pleasant to hear" interpretation, but scored them according to other standards. The principle of "faithfulness", which the clients attach most importance to, did not play a corresponding role in the evaluation.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，171)

The second group of clients expect interpreters to go beyond "translation machines" and become helpers who can answer their own questions and facilitate communication. Such clients generally have little knowledge of the fields involved in the interpreting content, and the purpose of receiving interpreting of them is to understand a completely unfamiliar knowledge field and acquire as much new knowledge as possible.

In practice, most clients prefer the latter, which is also determined by the nature of liaison interpreting. One characteristic of liaison interpreters is that interpreters often act as "escorts" (Zhan Cheng 2010,3).

As an example, the author accompanied the "Confucius Institute" visiting group of South Korea's Wonkwang University during undergraduate years., for the purpose of cultural communication, the school asked the author with the delegation visit to cultural sites such as Hunan Provincial Museum, the author's main role in the trip is interpreter, but due to the particularity of interpreting theme, the author needs to explain the names of cultural relics and supplement relevant historical knowledge to the delegation members, so while interpreting, the author also plays the role of a tour guide.

====3.2.The Interpreter's Position on Themselves====
In the perspective of Foucault's power theory, the interpreter is no longer the traditional "transmitter", and the subject consciousness of the interpreter is highlighted. In the practice of interpreting, the interpreter's cognition of his/her status, ability and value is an important manifestation of the interpreter's subjectivity (Wang 2019,14). In liaison interpreting, as a person directly involved in communication and proficient in bilingualism, the liaison interpreter must have the advantage of adopting appropriate interpretation strategies according to power distribution in a communication. From the perspective of "translator-centered theory", liaison interpreters also have the obligation to adapt to different interpreting environments and coordinate the discourse of communication parties. Then the following situations usually occur:

In order to ensure the quality of their interpretation products and promote the progress of communication, liaison interpreters tend to go beyond the act of interpretation itself and make supplementary explanations of the content of interpretation that may cause communication barriers, either intentionally or unintentionally. Or when the interpretation content is of a strong national or national nature, liaison interpreters will inevitably have a tendency to protect the rights of their own country and nation and increase the discourse power of their own country and nation.

Of course, in general, interpreters will try their best to follow the principle of "faithfulness" in interpretation, and the ratio of "faithfulness" to "creativity" depends on the "choice" made by the liaison interpreter according to the translation environment.

====3.3.The Role of Interpreter under Different Liaison Interpreting Types====
"There is no absolute or unambiguous criterion for determining whether a method of interpreting is' good 'in all respects. Different types of interpreting activities have different target structures, different concerns, needs, expectations, and different levels of participation by all parties involved, which means that there are a variety of requirements for interpreters ".（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，172）

Therefore, the author believes that when discussing the role of the liaison interpreter, the role of the interpreter should be analyzed according to the different interpretation types. Next, the author intends to take business interpreting, guide-interpreting and legal interpreting as examples to analyze the roles of interpreters suitable for different interpreting type.

=====3.3.1.Business Interpreting=====
Business interpreting is different from other liaison interpreting. First, business interpreting usually takes place in the context of cooperative project negotiation. In communication, the monolingual speakers respectively represent the interests of their enterprises and, usually, the interests of the countries where the enterprises are located.Secondly, the communicative parties usually have the purpose of long-term cooperation. Third, the content of business interpreting usually contains a large number of professional terms and figures; Fourth, business interpreters are usually permanent employees of one side of the communication. Fifthly, advanced diction is usually used in business interpretation.

Due to the above characteristics of business interpreting, it is necessary for liaison interpreters to have the following accurate understanding of their role positioning.

First, business interpreters are channels to convey "meaning". This is the basic professionalism of an interpreter. Liaison interpreting is also known as bilateral interpretation. The existing bilateral interpretation model is based on the "tripartite communication" model. As one of the three parties, the liaison interpreter, like the Internet connecting two terminals, undertakes the task of processing the communication information between the two parties.

Second, business interpreters are debaters for the benefit of their clients. Because of the long-standing relationship between liaison interpreters and clients, clients tend to treat the interpreters they hire as their "inside" colleagues.In many business communication situations, clients represent the interests of their own enterprises and are in a fast-changing vanity fair, and the business interpreters employed by them, as bilingual and with certain knowledge of the business, are bound to be the target for clients to seek help.(Zhang Meng 2014，29)

Third, business interpreters are mediators of the negotiation atmosphere. In business negotiations, it is often the case that the two parties in communication fight for their own interests and the negotiation comes to a deadlock. Business interpreters have the obligation to use interpreting strategies and techniques to soften the atmosphere and act as a buffer when both sides are using increasingly extreme language and tone.

Fourth, a business interpreter is also a professional "business practitioner". Business interpreters are professional "business practitioners" who are the second most important role besides "interpreter". This is also based on the first point of the basic role of the interpreter positioning. Sometimes the two sides of communication have different professional terms for the same concept. In order to facilitate the smooth communication between the two sides, usually the interpreter needs to be familiar with the relevant terms and interpret them quickly and accurately. In other words, it requires not only a good command of a foreign language, but also a good knowledge of business.（Zhang Meng 2014，29）

=====3.3.2.Guide-interpreting=====
In addition to the business interpreting and legal interpreting mentioned by Pǎchhacker in the classification of interpreting, guide-interpreting is also distinguished from other liaison interpreting in that it has the most prominent intercultural characteristics and the emphasis of interpretation is on the inheritance of the culture reflected in the source language. In a sense, the role of a guide-interpreter is similar to that of a diplomat, who not only needs to make tourists understand the history and culture of China, but also needs to answer their questions accurately and timely. As a result, guide-interpreters should pay more attention when making role positioning.(Jia Zhiyong 2017，223/ Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,160-162)

First, guide-interpreters are facilitators of communication. In the tourism-themed interpreting work, the interpreter's duty is to help tourists and tour guides communicate, which is also the embodiment of the interpreter's "bridge" role in the field of tourism. So in some cases, it is necessary for an interpreter to supplement the source language, such as when a Chinese tour guide introduces a mountain to English-speaking tourists and says:

ex）“大家现在看到的山远看像一条卧龙，因此取名卧龙山。”
And then the interpreter can interpret this sentence as:

1）*"The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain."

2）"The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain. ‘Wolong’ means sleeping dragon."

Obviously, the first interpreting product does not convey the original intention of the tour guide to the tourists. The tour guide's original intention is to let the tourists know that the name of the mountain has something to do with its appearance. However, if the name of the mountain is transliterated directly without supplementary explanation, the tourists will still not understand the connection between the name of the mountain and its shape.

Second, tour interpreters are "cultural brokers". Besides interpreting the words of tour guides to tourists, interpreters should also properly explain some incomprehensible cultural phenomena to tourists. For example, a tour guide introduces the Palace Museum in Beijing to foreign tourists.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,161)

The Palace Museum in Beijing is a completely symmetrical building built along a central axis. The ancient Chinese, influenced by Confucianism, believed that a completely symmetrical building could foil the majesty of the emperor. If the interpreter only changes the language of the original when interpreting this sentence, it will not make the foreign tourists understand The Chinese Confucian culture correctly. Because the guide as well as Chinese tourists learn at an early age and contact with Confucianism, so the Chinese subconsciously has "symmetrical architecture", "Confucianism" and "Confucianism" link up without the need for further explanation, but as an interpreter should be aware that foreign tourists are likely to have no contact with Confucianism, also don't know "symmetrical architecture" and "Confucianism", so when the tour guide has no further explanation, the interpreter is necessary for additional instructions, play the role of a "cultural agent".

Third, guide-interpreters are the keepers of the atmosphere. The working scenes of guide-interpreters are informal, such as scenic spots and hotels, so the intonation and wording of interpreters should be in line with the current atmosphere. If the intonation is too plain and the wording is too serious, foreign tourists will find it difficult to adapt to it, and the interpreting products of interpreters will also "reject" the interpreting settings.

Fourth, guide-interpreters are "experts" in the tourism industry. Similar to a business interpreter, a guide-interpreter requires a comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the relevant field, which is the basis for the interpreter to act as a "culture broker".

Fifthly, there is another special case in which a guide-interpreter may be both an interpreter and a tour guide. When the author was an undergraduate, the author acted as an interpreter for the "Confucius Institute" delegation of Wonkwang University in South Korea, mainly following them to various cultural tourist attractions. Since the author had been to relevant scenic spots for many times, the author acted as a dual role of "interpreter" and "tour guide" without employing professional guides.

=====3.3.3.Legal Interpreting=====
Legal interpreting refers to interpreting under legal settings, including judicial interpreting and quasi-judicial interpreting. Judicial interpreting refers to "interpreting under court settings", while quasi-judicial interpreting refers to interpreting taken place outside the court and closely related to court procedure (Zhao Junfeng，Dong Yan 2020,70).

In distinguishing between international and community settings, Pǎchhacker points out that court interpreting is "the most obvious binding setting for community interpreting". (Franz.Pǎchhacker, 2010,177) The author takes courtroom interpreting as an example for analysis. In court interpreting, the situation of interpretation is more serious than that of other types of interpreting, because of the rigor of the law, the interpreter should also be more precise in the wording and sentence construction. The roles of court interpreters are as follows:

First, an invisible interpreting machine. In most court interpreting, the restrictions imposed by the legal system on interpreters are often contrary to the standards advocated by the interpreting profession (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,178). In order to maintain the rigor of the law, court interpreters are required to be "invisible" and interpret word by word, so the nature of the law gives court interpreters a role positioning that distinguishes them from other types of interpreters -- "artificial intelligence interpreting machine" with high accuracy.

Second, conflict mediators. This role is due to the large power gap between legal practitioners such as judges and non-legal practitioners such as defendants and plaintiffs in the courtroom. In tense court debates, interpreters often act as conflict mediators in order to keep communication going.

Third, intercultural agents. In fact, it is not only guide-interpreting, there will be more or less cultural barriers in any intercultural communication, and court interpreting is no exception. There was a famous case in which a Chinese-grandmother who lived in the United States gave "刮痧" to her sick grandson. Her son-in-law mistakenly thought that she had abused the child, so she was brought to court. The grandmother argued in court that it was only "刮痧", and the interpreter made additional explanations and said："‘刮痧’is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy" in order to make the American judge understand "刮痧" , and the case was finally dismissed. This example well demonstrates the important role of interpreters as intercultural agents in court interpretation. (Du Mengmeng, Tan Jianying 2013,106-107)

Fourth, legal "experts". In order to ensure the accuracy of the interpreting and the accurate understanding of legal terms by the listener of the TL, interpreters usually need to master a large amount of legal knowledge and relevant vocabulary accurately, and be able to provide basic answers for the listener lacking legal knowledge when necessary.

To sum up, the role of an interpreter is generally related to the above three aspects. In other words, due to the limitations of client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge and setting, interpreters need to make "adaptive selection" and "selective adaptation" to different interpreting environments according to client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge. The role positioning of the interpreter affects the interpreting strategies that the interpreter chooses in the actual interpreting process, so the balance between "reception aesthetics" and "translator-centered theory" in different interpreting settings is of vital importance.

===4.Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Settings===
====4.1.The Influence and Application of Reception Aesthetics and "Translator-Centered Theory" on Interpreting Strategies====
As mentioned in the previous section, there are two main types of interpretation customers: those who expect faithful interpreting and those who expect supplementary interpreting. When interpreters fail to communicate with clients in advance and adjust their interpreting strategies according to clients' expectations, they will often produce interpreting products deviating from clients' needs, thus leading to errors in the transmission of interpreting information and resulting in interpreting barriers. The influence of such factors can be largely eliminated by preparation before interpreting.

In the pre-interpretation preparation stage, interpreters can understand the cultural background of clients in advance or directly communicate with clients to understand their needs. Only by integrating interpretation products with clients' expectations can they be regarded as successful interpreting products. However, in practical interpreting, interpreters also encounter another kind of difficulty, that is, clients have aesthetic expectations of interpreting products and expect interpreters to make detailed explanations of relevant information.

We know that the aesthetic value of an interpreting product derives from the "places of indeterminacy" of the product. Generally speaking, it is the space to appreciate an interpreting product, similar to the "blank space" in a Chinese painting. A balance should be struck between the degree of supplementary explanation and the degree of artistic "white space" in interpreting, which is difficult to grasp precisely because the clients who often make such requests do not have an accurate definition. In order to deal with this problem, interpreters have to make perceptual judgments based on their rich practical experience. Of course, it is not feasible to develop interpreting strategies based entirely on clients' expectations.

Lv Jun once put forward, "Every reader has different natural talent, endowment, experience and cultivation, so the works will present different meanings to each reader... If based on such a theory, how can we draw the conclusion of ‘principle of equivalence’?" This is also the paradox between reception aesthetics and Nida's ‘functional equivalence theory’" (Lv Jun 1997，51).

As interpreters are participants in intercultural communication, their own factors must have a great impact on the quality of interpreting. The author believes that the problem of interpreting obstacles caused by interpreters' own factors can be solved through the "translator-centered theory" in "Eco-translatology". The "translator-centered theory" requires interpreters to develop themselves, that is, interpreters should change their interpreting circumstances and improve their interpreting ability, so as to obtain freedom of choice to ensure their central position in interpreting activities.(Luo Dijiang 2019，219)

Interpreters can expand their power in interpreting activities by improving their interpreting ability and using interpreting techniques. According to Pǎchhacker, there are two ways to improve interpreting skills: personal qualities and professional skills. Personal quality includes biological individual function and psychological quality. Professional skills mainly refer to bilingual skills. First of all, how to improve personal quality and ability. Apart from the inherent intelligence factor, interpreters should actively improve their psychological quality, which is a necessary guarantee for the smooth progress of interpreting.（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,181）

In case of difficulties, interpreters should not be flustered, but should actively take various countermeasures to overcome or temporarily avoid the difficulties to ensure the quality of the overall interpreting products. Zhan Cheng suggested that interpreters could simplify this by seeking help from the speakers (Zhan Cheng 2010，153-154).

In addition, the author believes that the predicament of interpreting can also be solved by "imitation words"， which is a special kind of loanwords. Take Chinese-Korean interpreting for example. In the Hunan Provincial Museum, there is a collection called "纪念木牍", which is a piece of wood used for writing in ancient China to records the time of some events, a time when the interpreter didn't know its corresponding proper nouns, can according to its pronunciation rules imitate a word - "기년목독". Since both countries belong to the same cultural cycle of Chinese characters , Koreans learn basic Chinese characters from an early age, so they can understand the meaning and use of the imitated words even if they are not accurate.

There is also a case in French where the word science-fiction is directly interpreted into English. This is very useful for solving the sudden interpreting obstacles encountered in the process of interpreting.(Munday, J 2014, 80)

In terms of improving professional skills, before the beginning of interpreting, interpreters should have a systematic system of interpreting notes, which should be as concise as possible to improve the efficiency of interpreting symbols, and should be used to test the practicality of symbols in practice. Interpreters should also accumulate professional knowledge and vocabulary in various fields in daily life, and be familiar with the interpreting content and background knowledge before starting an interpreting.

At the end of the interpreting work, the interpreter should review the difficulties encountered in the interpreting activities and think positively about the solutions to avoid repeating the past mistakes. With the development and progress of science and technology, modern science and technology have been widely used in the field of interpreting. Using digital recording technology, the interpreters can replace the notes in the interpreting by simply using portable devices such as computers to attach the source words to the digital audio tape and then playing them through headphones (Franz. Pǎchhacker 2010, 186).

In addition, modern technology can also be used to build artificial intelligence corpus, which can be used to classify corpus according to different translation topics.

====4.2.Interpreting Strategies in Different Settings====
Whether it is business interpreting, guide-interpreting or legal interpreting, interpreters are faced with the choice of "faithfulness" and "creativity". However, different types of liaison interpreting have different "interpreting ecological environments". The author analyzed the interpreting strategies applicable to these three types of liaison interpreting respectively.

The clients of business interpreting have unclear requirements on interpreting products, which require interpreters not only to profit for the company but also to regulate the atmosphere, while the ecological environment of business interpreting requires interpreters to be both "faithful" and "creative". Therefore, the interpreter has to adjust the strategy according to the specific interpreting content at any time. When both sides of the communication are negotiating for benefits, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “faithfulness” rather than “creativity”; when the two sides are chatting, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “creativity” rather than “faithfulness”; and when the two sides enter into a deadlock, the interpreter should use the "creative" interpreting to ease the atmosphere.

In guide-interpreting, the interpreter's role as "cultural broker" and "atmosphere maker", clients are usually expect interpreters interpret products for their own pleasure, so in the interpreting process of the guide-interpreting, interpreters should be as creative as possible through omission or addition, lively tone and appropriate word choice to achieve clients' expectations. At the same time, interpreters should not completely rebel against the principle of "faithfulness" without regard to the content of the SL.

Although interpreters also play the role of intercultural agents in legal interpreting, their more important role is interpretation machine for legal provisions. The ecological environment of legal interpreting is in a highly tense and rigorous atmosphere, which requires interpreters to adapt to the rigorous atmosphere and try their best to interpret sentence by sentence.

===5.Conclusion===
In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory".

The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory". The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between "faithfulness" and "creativity".

We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of "faithfulness" and "creativity" according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the "creativity" of interpretation products on the basis of "faithfulness", so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret "word by word". Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content.

This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. After the end of interpretation, we can reflect on the mistakes and make an interpreting corpus to avoid repeating the mistakes in the future.In a word, interpreters should strike a balance between "faithfulness" and "creativity" by relying on their professional quality and customers' expectations, which is the only way to improve the quality of interpretation products.

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--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 17:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=Translation Appreciation=

==Study on Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==

<center>袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi </center>

===Abstract===

''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in American literature. Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into Chinese, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times in China. The version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and the most influential one in China, and it is regarded as a classic translation. There have been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are relatively few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi's translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to translation studies of ''Walden'' and literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.

===Key words===

''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics

===题目===
从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本

===摘要===

《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。

===关键词===

《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学

===Introduction===

====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====
=====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====
''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise, powerful, simple and natural which represent a unique style among American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord, at there he cultivated his own land, ate food grown in his land and experienced a life that is simple and close to nature. Thoreau loved and appreciated nature and he immersed himself in nature. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment.

=====Introduction to ''Walden''=====
''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which records Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two years from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau's view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.
''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, this book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages.
Thoreau's own practices in reality and his works both reflected his ideal, that is returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by their families, works and various material needs, thus they lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.

====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====
=====Introduction to Xu Chi=====
Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription "Poetry expresses ambition", and he was known as "Contemporary Chinese Goethe" and "Father of Reportage". Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).

=====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====
In 1949, Xu translated ''Walden'' into Chinese called "华尔腾". However, his translation failed to elicit widespread attention. Because at that time, people all over China were immersed in the joy of gaining liberation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'' which promotes tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.

In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it "瓦尔登湖", which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu Chi's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu Chi's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden'' (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).
Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, could he have more resonance with the writers and their works and thus he could reproduce the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent.(Yao Junwei 2005, 146).

Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's work, did Xu Chi love this book so much and he decided to translate this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes did not have time to read it. Because this book was too difficult to understand, Xu Chi found that it seemed that this book was not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, later he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he felt it quite interesting. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the night became quiet, the book became not so obscure and he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).

''Walden'' is Xu Chi's most successful translation. He translated it first in 1949, then again in 1982 and finally in 1996. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'' in recent years, but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translation of ''Walden''. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference , which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation (Wang Zhao 2009, 147).

====Style and Styllistics====
=====Style=====
Originated from Latin or Greek word "stile" or "stilus", "style" originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 374).
Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of "figures" that conform to his or her mode of discourse (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 375).

For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.

One of the most successful attempts to define "style" in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short's definition. They offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:
(a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language.
(b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text).
(c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function.
(d) Stylistic choices is limited to those aspects of linguistic choices which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter. (Leech and Short 1981)

Another example is Nida Eugene's definition. He pointed out that translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. So in translation of literary works, the author's style should be represented through the translator's style, and the translator's style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers'styles and yet has its own unique translation style (Nida Eugene 1982, 12).

The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of linguistic style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-linguistic style include the author's emotion, the author's imagination and the author's intelligence. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of linguistic style. (Lv Jun & Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).

In conclude, translation, especially literary translation as an cross-cultural process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.

=====Styllistics=====
Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms. It is an interdisciplinary subject, which is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines. Its object of study is the style of language.

It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 376).

=====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====
''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Thoreau'language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized as plain, natural, concise, powerful, and unique. ''Walden'' is also a book which aims directly at the reader. Anyone who reads this book will feel like they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. However, this book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Because ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: rich vocabulary, complex syntax and various rhetorical devices (Zhang Jianguo 2005, 107).

So it is helpful for translators to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand Thoreau' stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his language style in the target language.

===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===
====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====
=====Degree of Formality=====
In ''Walden'', Thoreau used concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, Thoreau's choice of words suggests that general style of ''Walden'' is not that formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation.

First, let us see a example of translation of nouns in Xu Chi's version.
Example 1：
…；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)
Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)

As can be seen from the above, "washing" in Xu Chi's translation is understood as "洗瀣物". "washing" is a common word English-speaking people use in their daily lives. However, "瀣" is not a word Chinese people encounter very often in their daily conversations. Although the word "洗瀣物" reproduced the content of "washing" but it can not reflect the degree of formality of the original word. Thus it fail to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．

Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. So let us look at a example of it.
Example 2：
Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)
Xu Chi's Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有冻馁之忧。(徐迟 2009, 83)

In original text, the first adjective "poor" is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered "cold and hungry" into a four-character noun phrase "冻馁之忧" which means which appears uncoordinated with three adjectives "邋遢", "褴褛" and "粗野" being placed before the noun phrase "冻馁之忧". What is more, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.

Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the following analysis.
Example 3：
I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house, and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill, in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)
Xu Chi's Translation：
我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)

As we can see from the example, these verbs in the original text are concise and they are common in our daily speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word "see" into "考察" which sounds serious and formal, because "考察" means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as "考察人" or "考察情况". So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.

=====Expressive Meaning=====
The lexical meaning of a word or lexical unit may be thought of as the specific value it has in a particular linguistic system. But it is rarely possible to analyze a word, pattern or structure into distinct components of meaning; Nevertheless, it is sometimes useful to play down the complexities of language temporarily in order to appreciate them and to be able to handle them better in the long run (Zgusta 1971, 67).

Roman Jakobson coined the term expressive or emotive as one of the functions of language. He described it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], which aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about and gives interjections as the prime example of this function (Jakobson 1960, 354).

It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness. Here is a exampe.
Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)
Xu Chi's Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子从大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)

According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, "sweeping" is the act of a sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.) in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of "flood tides", "westerly winds" and "ice" was destructive and therefore it is clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word "sweep" here reflects the speaker's negative attitude towards the possible outcome. Obviously, the word "冲掉" in Xu Chi's translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker's attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and ice. Xu ignored the author's emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause and thus he did not produce equivalence of "sweep".

====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====
Raffel (1994) points out that "the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said." So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should not be ignored.

In the original text, there are many short sentences with neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structures in translation and he adopted the method of literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text. Since both Chinese and English are discourse systems, literal translation can be a good way to deal with them.
Example 5:
It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137)
Xu Chi’s Translation:
这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)

This paragraph has a neat structure and neat antithesis, and it has pleasing and harmonious rhythm. The original text is composed of ten verses. Xu Chi retained the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value. And he paid attention to the rhythm of the original text and retained it in his translation, which makes his translation closer to the original text.

====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====
=====Metaphor=====
According to the Webster dictionary, "metaphor" means a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in drowning in money).
Example 6:
Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012, 7)
Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。 (徐迟 2009, 6）

The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are "public opinion" and "weak tyrant". There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason:"compared to our own private opinions". People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is slightly weak. The use of metaphor here shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly, expressing the meaning of the original text.

=====Pun=====
Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meanings in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) pointed out that "pun translation is unimportant but fascinating".

The use of puns in ''Walden'' is remarkable. The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two layers of meaning in a word, a phrase or a sentence, they are often used as a link between the preceding text and following text. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence of the text and its rhetorical and aesthetic effects.

Example 7：
If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)
Xu Chi's Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，—那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)

This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that "Walden" might come from "Walled-in". "Walled-in Pond", as a homophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu Chi wisely translated it as "围而得", retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the similar meaning. "围而得" maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph. It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.

=====Personification=====
Personification refers to the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature. People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.

Example 8：
This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)
Xu Chi's Translation:
我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)

Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. Thoreau shares his experience of growing beans and his plan for next summer with readers here. As we know, words like "sincerity", "truth", "simplicity", "faith" and "innocence" usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduced the rhetorical feature of the original.

===Conclusion===
The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult.
To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.

===References===
Leech.G.N. & M. H. Short. (1981). ''Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Newmark P. (2001). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.

Nida Eugene. (1982). ''Translating Meaning''. Sandimas: English Language Institute. 12.

Raffe. (1994). ''The Art of Translating Prose''. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press．

Roman Jaobson. (1960). ''“Linguistics and Poetry” in Style and Language''. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Thoreau Henry David. (2012). ''Walden''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, INC.

Hu Zhuanglin 胡壮麟. （2015). 语言学高级教程 [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. Beijing：Peking University Press

Lv Jun & Hou Xiangqun 吕俊,侯向群. (2001) 《英汉翻译教程》[English-chinese Translation Course].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.320.

Wu Siying & Li Jing 吴巳英,李靖. (2011). 外国文学翻译体例的时代演变——基于《瓦尔登湖》不同译本的比较. [The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. ''湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.

Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Yao Junwei 姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. ''外国文学研究'' [Study of Foreign Literature] 4 145-149.

Zhang Jianguo 张建国. (2005). 梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的语言风格探析 [Analysis on language Style of Walden By Thoreau]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报'' [Journal of Henan Commercial College] 03 106-107.

==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==

<center>王美玲 Wang Meiling</center>

===Abstract===

The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.

===Key words===

Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;

===摘要===

文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。

===关键词===

文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；

===1.Introduction===

The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice."First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas."（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）

Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?

===2.Brief Comments on Translation Thoughts in the Period of Renaissance===

Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. "In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist." Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. （Tan Zaixi，2004：68）

Translations must be faithful to the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. "In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist." Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. （Tan Zaixi，2004：68）--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the "Chief Translator" of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.（Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）

Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of "trying to be comparable to the original work", and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a "feeling of beauty". （Tan Zaixi，2004：68-69）

leaving readers a "feeling of beauty".--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre.(Tan Zaixi，2004：76-77）

From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance.Liu Junping said: "In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. "（liu Junping,2009:76）

Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. "The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers." (Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）

This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.

In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language.(Tan Zaixi，2004：83）

Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.(Tan Zaixi，2004：64）

===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===

====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====

Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as "the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century". Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.(Liu Hongyan,2010:1）

Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the "first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.(Tan Zaixi，2004：68）

====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====

=====3.2.1 Lu Xun's "Foreignization"=====

Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of "Foreignization" , which preserved the "exoticism". Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of "Foreignization" could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, "Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution."（Chen Fukang,2000;286）

With regard to his translation concept of "Foreignization", he had such remarks :

“还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)

From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to "conveying feelings" and "improving education", and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.

From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to "conveying feelings" and "improving education", and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generations to achieve the goal of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.2 Luther's "Domesticization"=====

In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that " Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German."
In the A Short History of Translation in the West, Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)

In the ''A Short History of Translation in the West'', Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

"Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise."

Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of "naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.

====3.3 Conclusion====

Lu Xun's translation principle of "Foreignization", which preserved "exoticism", satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.

Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.

Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.(Liu Hongyan，2010:2）

===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===

Engels praised Luther:"Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century." (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.

'''Example one '''

“You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”

“The translator can change the word order of the original text”

“严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）

Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of "拉开" can only be issued by human beings, and the "心幕" is not a physical object which cannot be "pulled open". In the process of translation, we find that the action of "拉开" does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of "拉开" and "心幕" is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb "拉开", which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose"涌出" as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb "unveil". Naturally, the phrase "五年前的一个印象" becomes the subject. scene of five years ago", and the word "before" was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation "A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye." It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to "The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the "心幕" and the "印象" is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of "faithfulness", meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.

'''Example Two'''

“The necessary conjunctions can be added.”

“作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）

After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences.(Zhang Sijie,Zhang Bairan,1998:54)

Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.

'''Example Three'''

The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”

“不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）

Translators find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word "奋斗" may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to "奋斗", the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be "struggle", "fight", and "strive", one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is "raising flowers", which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the "奋斗" of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word "struggle" by using such phrases as "weather through", "carry on the struggle for existence" to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.

'''Example Four'''

“Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”

In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, "One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him."（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.

Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.

===5.Conclusion ===

In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.(Tan Zaixi，2004：67）

After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's A Short History of Translation in the West and Chen Fukang's A History of Translation Theory In China, the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.

After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's ''A Short History of Translation in the West'' and Chen Fukang's ''A History of Translation Theory in China'', the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by more practice.

===6.References===

[1]Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.

[2]Chen Fukang 陈福康.(2000).中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China].

[3]Liu Hongyan 刘红岩.(2010). 鲁迅与马丁·路德翻译思想对比研究 [A Comparative Study of Lu Xun's and Martin Luther's translation Thoughts]

[4]Liu Junping 刘军平.(2009).西方翻译理论通史[A General History of Western Translation Theory]

[5]Lu Xun 鲁迅.(1935).鲁迅全集.[The Complete Works of LU Xun]

[6]Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史.[A Short History of Translation in the West]

[7]Zhang Sijie, Zhang Bairan 张思洁,张柏然.(1998).意合与形合.[Parataxis and Hypotaxis]

==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638 英语口译==

<center>康浩宇 Kang Haoyu</center>

===Abstract===

In interpreting, interpreter's memory plays an important role, and the level of the memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. How interpreter's memory ability works is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of "memory", appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretating, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper explores the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretating industry from the principle of memory.

===Keywords===

Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting

===摘要===

在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。译者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。

===关键词===

记忆；翻译记忆；口译

===1 Introduction===

'''1.1 Background'''

Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a part of interpreter's competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognizes and keeps the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decodes the information into the target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019).

With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective ways for translation. In CAT, there is a tool called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness in this aspect(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).

'''1.2 Significance of the Study'''

There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have a better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address their problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on the memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism and effects(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it refers to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improves the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory application in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

'''1.3 Structure of the Study'''

This thesis will be developed in five chapters.
Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.
Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.
Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.
Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.
The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.

===2 Study on Memory===

'''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''

Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things in the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience of human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus of the brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and it is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).

'''2.2. Memory Systems'''

Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''

As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity has more than 9 chunks while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about 5 chunks. The "chunks" here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be further processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''

Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short term memory will be transferred to long term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which stores information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappearance of short term memory is often due to the interruption.

'''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''

Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for a long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.

'''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''

Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters' listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).

'''2.3.1 Memorizing'''

Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).

According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).Unconscious memorization refers to the memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).

Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes "what to remember" and "how to remember". "What to memorize" determines the direction and content of memorization, and "how to memorize" is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However,as for memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).

'''2.3.2 Keeping'''

Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the "image" in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26).

Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

'''2.3.3 Recalling'''

The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of the intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In the aspect of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).

'''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''

Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).

'''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''

The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).

'''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''

Recency effect, also put forward by an American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).

Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).

Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).

===3 Memory in Interpreting===

In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of the original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''

When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of the internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).

Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).

Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).

'''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''

In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the "Deverbalization Mode" theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).

"Deverbalization Mode" theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41).

In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).

Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of the input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of "semantic retrieval", identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

'''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''

'''3.3.1 Logical Memory'''

Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of "recalling" and "interpreting". In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for the interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

'''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''

Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of the information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.

“同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)

The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.

“Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”

From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

'''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''

In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity has only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).

There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.

“环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)

And the official translation is given as followed.

“Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”

In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).

===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===

'''4.1 Translation Memory'''

With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).

'''4.1.1 Definition'''

Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more "smart" and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).

'''4.1.2 Mechanism'''

The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).

Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful when translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)

'''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''

'''4.2.1 Current Situation '''

Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

The first stage is the pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. On the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

'''4.2.2 Limitations'''

Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of the limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.

As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).

As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).

===5 Conclusion===

A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting. However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.

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== The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==

=== Abstract ===
Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention.
The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation.

=== Keywords ===

Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation

=== 摘要 ===

人类已经进入多媒体时代，语言作为一种单一的模态形式已经无法充分表达交际的意义。因此，我们还需要一些其他的情态手段加以加强，以充分表达意义，达到交际的目的，如声音、视觉形象、色彩等。因此，多模态一词引起了语言学家的兴趣和关注。
本文以多模态话语分析理论为基础，旨在在多模态话语分析理论框架下分析以下三个方面：1。多模态在电影《本杰明·巴顿》中的体现，则旨在分析在多模态话语分析的理论框架下，字幕和多模态如何结合起来构建整体意义。第二个目标是讨论电影字幕与其他情态动词的关系，以及不同情态动词之间的关系。三。通过对电影字幕在翻译过程中的整体意义的分析，本文试图对电影字幕翻译提出一些建议。

=== 关键词 ===

多模态语篇分析；视听产品；字幕翻译

=== Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===

''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''

At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language.
Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years.
In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples.

However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis.
In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress & Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress & Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress & Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use.

In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.

''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''

Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level

''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''

Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called "complementary relationship", while the other is called non-complementary relationship.

Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.

=== Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===

''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''

With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as "a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts". (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s.
Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. "Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation." (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)

''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''

Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics:
Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect.

Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities.
Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.
Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed.
Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.

''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''

''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''

It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.

''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''

The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.

''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''

As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film.
There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

=== Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of "Benjamin Button" From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===

''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamin Button' '''

'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.
The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.

''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''

''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''

Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that "the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible". In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.
The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of "rejuvenate" is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.
In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.

When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”
The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)
There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”
The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26任总统)”
In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, "Mr. cake" suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called "Teddy Roosevelt" will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means "cake" in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of "Teddy".

''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''

In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.
When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.”

Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.
When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase "sweep you off your feet" means "to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you"（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to "fall in love" with her but "I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly"(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.

''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''

The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.
“Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of "well" does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.
“You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。”

As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.
For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:
Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)
Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)
The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.

''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''

Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.

Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.
Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: "he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.". (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.

=== Chapter Four Conclusion ===

The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of "rejuvenation" as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.

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==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company 陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 英语笔译 202070080582==

<center>陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 英语笔译 202070080582</center>

===Abstract===

Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of "The Belt and Road Initiative" and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in the international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers.

As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, many problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions.

According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation involves language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between the source language and the target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, tring to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions.

===Key words===

Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation; Adaptation Theory; Yulin Pharmaceutical Company

===摘要===

中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。

药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。

比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。

===关键词===

中医药品说明书翻译；顺应论；玉林制药公司

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Research Background of the Study====

As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since "The Belt and Road Initiative" proposed for the first time, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. (Luo Haiyan, 2016)

As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaging in R&D, production and sales of TCM. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumers' safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. The quality translation of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. (Luo Haiyan, 2016)

====1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study====

It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence the necessity to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive way and to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. (Cao Qing, 2011)

Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, who thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between the source language and the target language. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications, and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among the foreign medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

===2. Features of TCM Instructions===

Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers' safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications because the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

What's more, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derive from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times. The peculiar traits of TCM language, and the technical terms, directly or indirectly, come from the abstract medical concepts of TCM. The classical style or semi-classical style used in ancient times remains. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn't been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language in Chinese can find no equivalence in English, hence the difficulty in translating them into English. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

===3. Introduction of Adaptation Theory===

Adaptation Theory was firstly proposed in 1987 by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, the secretary general of International Pragmatics Association. And then it has been developed and modified for several times over years, attracting a lot of attention in the linguistics community with its integrated system and solid philosophical foundation. In the book, ''Understanding Pragmatics'', Verschueren describes that "language use must consist of the continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, for language-internal and/or language-external reasons." (Verschueren, 2000)

In other words, when making linguistic choices, language users are influenced by the internal structure of language and the external factors. Verschueren attaches great importance to the adaptation of linguistic structures and contexts, and takes communication as a conscious language choice-making process and dynamic adaptability. The essence of communication and expression is a dynamic process, and the context will change along with communication, thus, language forms and strategies should be taken into consideration so as to comply with the context and achieve effective communication. (Verschueren, 2000)

====3.1 Three Properties of Language====

According to Verschueren, there are three properties in language: variability, negotiability and adaptability, and it is the reason why we can make choices during language usage. "These three properties are inseparable with one another, variability and negotiability being the foundation, the ultimate purpose and core is adaptability." (Verschueren, 2000)

Variability provides a large number of linguistic choices during the process of language usage, and lays a basic foundation for the realization of negotiability and adaptability. Negotiability means language users will go through negotiation with themselves when choosing the most appropriate forms and strategies so as to make adaptation and fulfil the communicative intention. As the core of language property, adaptability enables language users to make linguistic choices provided by variability, and then negotiate to decide which choice to be made in accordance with different language contexts. (Verschueren, 2000)

As mentioned above, these three properties are inseparable with one another. Variability and negotiability make it possible and available for language users to choose the proper form and strategy of a language when making adaptation to a specific language context. (Verschueren, 2000)

====3.2 Four Aspects of Investigation====

Based on the guidance of Adaptation Theory, Verschueren advocates four aspects of investigation in linguistic research, namely, contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability, dynamics of adaptability and salience of adaptation process. (Verschueren, 2000)

Contextual correlates of adaptability "potentially includes all the ingredients of the communicative context with which linguistic choices have to be inter-adaptable." These ingredients include language users, the physical world, the social world (such as social relations, culture, social status and social settings), and the mental world (personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations or intentions, etc.). Since it entails the objective and subjective factors and both sides of language users (utterer and interpreter), making adaptation to the context is of great significance. (Verschueren, 2000)

Structural objects of adaptability happens at all levels of the linguistic structures, ranging from codes and styles, words and clauses, to sentences and prepositional structures. In order to adapt to different cultures and linguistic structures, language users need to choose the most appropriate structure so as to build up the logical relationship and improve the readability and credibility in target language. (Verschueren, 2000)

Dynamics of adaptability means "the development of adaptability processes over time." It is created by the changes and development of language contexts and structures over time. And different words and translation strategies adopted in different contexts show the dynamic adaptability in language use. (Verschueren, 2000)

Salience of adaptation process refers to the various degree of consciousness in the process of making choices. The continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, covers exactly different levels of salience. (Verschueren, 2000)

In conclusion, as the indispensable parts in linguistic analysis, the four aspects of investigation are the necessary factors to explain and describe any given linguistic phenomenon.

===4. Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company===

From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, therefore, the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, there are some instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the Company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. (Verschueren, 2000)

====4.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====

As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and the social world due to the limited materials collected. (Verschueren, 2000)

=====4.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World=====

Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers' mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. (Verschueren, 2000)

Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, which gives a sense of authority and credibility. (Ma Bangxin, 1998)

To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. "正骨水" is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, "Zheng Gu Shui", which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn't the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, "Bone-setting Liquor" would be a better name for the medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

"Bone-setting" means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and "liquor" implies alcohol and other irritating ingredients of the medicine. Consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds when seeing its name. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, "金装正骨水" can be translated to "Golden Bone-setting Liquor", and "极品正骨水" is rendered as "Superb Bone-setting Liquor". Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Another example, "睡安胶囊", the translation is "Shui'an Jiaonang". Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don't recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use "capsule" to indicate the type of this medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

A well-recognized name will arouse the attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang Lifeng advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. "Sleep Mate" or "Insomnia Killer" can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, "mate" is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such a combination, and "killer" combined with "insomnia" implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

=====4.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World=====

According to Verschueren, there is no principle limit to the range of social factors because linguistic choices are inter-adaptable. Basically, social settings and cultures play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point: (Zhou Shumei, 2013)

Example 1 (感冒止咳露)

Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛

Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia

Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles

Traditionally, "伤风" in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of "风" into the human body. "风" is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, "风" or "火", will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, "angina" and "melalgia" might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Besides, "nasal congestion" is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. The revised text, therefore, adopts "snuffle" and "sore throat" to indicate the meaning of "鼻塞" and "咽痛". The same goes to "肢痛", using "pain in muscles" to replace the word of "melalgia", hence the adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)

ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛

TT: Used for children's wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm

RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children

Similarly, example 2 also translates "伤风" into "wind damage", which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes "wind damage" and "exuberant phlegm", adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Literal translation is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers' social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible. (Nigel Wiseman, 2000)

====4.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn====

According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind. As indicated before, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the Company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. (Verschueren, 2000)

=====4.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level=====

Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company: (Zhang Mengjing, 1995)

Example 3 (蛤蚧补肾丸)

ST: 小便频数

TT: Frequent urination

Example 4 (金装正骨水)

ST: 祛风除湿

TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness

RT: Relieve rheumatic pain

Example 5 (珍黄丸)

ST: 消肿止痛

TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain

RT: Relieve swelling pain

Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. "祛风除湿" is a typical example. "风湿" is a disease caused by the invasion of "风" into the human body. If "风邪" cannot be removed from the body soon, "湿" will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, "祛风" is actually the result of "除湿", and vice versa. "消肿止痛" means that the pain is caused by swelling. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

In example 3, "小便频数" is translated into "Frequent urination", the structure of "adjective + noun" in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. Accordingly, the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into "Relieve rheumatic pain" and "Relieve swelling pain", not only implying the causal relationship in TCM language, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Example 6 (感冒止咳露)

ST: 止咳化痰

TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm

RT: Relieve cough and sputum

Example 7 (乌军治胆片)

ST: 疏肝解郁

TT: To course the liver and resolve depression

RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver

In the above two examples, "止咳化痰" is translated into "Suppress cough and transform phlegm". It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn't work well, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context and translate in isolation. "化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, hence the key words being "咳" and "痰", not the verbs. So the translation of "Relieve cough and sputum" would be more comprehensible and readable. (Nigel Wiseman, 2000)

And the example of "疏肝解郁" is actually another one that can be shown the casual relationship in TCM language. "疏" and "解" deliver the same meaning in such context, and "肝郁" is not the meaning of "depression of liver", but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract "Qi" in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into "Relieve Qi stagnation in liver" retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

=====4.2.2 Summary=====

Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation and make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English. (Verschueren, 2000)

From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the Company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level. It is found that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity. (Verschueren, 2000)

With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in the target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

====4.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====

As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren "...strategies are always involved in any type of communication." It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. (Verschueren, 2000)

The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the Company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 8 (正骨水)

ST: 舒筋活络

TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture

Example 9 (金装正骨水)

ST: 舒筋活络

TT: To relax and activate tendons

As for the translation of "舒筋活络", example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using "tendons" to express the meaning of "筋络". (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Besides the different specifications of "正骨水" and "金装正骨水", the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 10 (金装正骨水)

ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力

TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells

Example 11 (筋骨王)

ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。

TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells

Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of "增强" can be expressed by "improve" and "increase", and translators employs "partial" and "local" to express the meaning of "局部". As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 12 (睡安胶囊)

ST: 清心除烦

TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation

Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)

ST: 壮阳益肾

TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney

Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. "清心除烦" is rendered into "To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation", and "To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney" is more like the paraphrase of "壮阳益肾". Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers' mind in a better way. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people in these examples, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between thd source language and the target language. According to Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. (Verschueren, 2000)

As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

===5.Conclusion===

Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of "The Belt and Road Initiative", TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. (Verschueren, 2000)

Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn't deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

While at the same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and acceptable by target cultures and consumers. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. (Zhou Shumei, 2013)

The author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners. And free translation and domestication should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.

===References===

Fischbach, Henry. (1998). Translation and Medicine. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series.

Nigel Wiseman. (2000). Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach. University of Exeter.

Verschueren J. (1987). Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation. International Pragmatic Association.

Verschueren J. (2000). ''Understanding Pragmatics''. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. (2018). http://www.chinayulin.com/

Cao Qing 曹情. (2011). ''中文药品说明书的翻译''[Translation of Chinese Drug Instructions]. Hunan: University of South China 南华大学.

Luo Haiyan 罗海燕. (2016). ''功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译''[Translation of Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Functionalist Translation Theory]. Jiangxu: Nanjing University Of Chinese Medicine 南京中医药大学.

Ma Bangxin 马邦新. (1998). 英文药品说明书的翻译[Translation of English Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' [Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal] (3)16-18.

Ouyang Lifeng 欧阳利锋. (2002). 中医药说明书的英译[English Translation of TCM instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' [Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal] (2)17-20.

Xiao Qiong 肖琼. (2008). ''中医药说明书的翻译''[Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. Guangdong: Guangdong University of Foreign Studies 广东外语外贸大学.

Yuan Binye 袁斌业. (2009). 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[Enlightenment of Linguistic Adaptation Theory on Translation]. ''四川外国语学院院报'' [Journal of Sichuan International Studies University] (9)111-113.

Zhang Mengjing 张梦井. (1995). 药品说明书的英译问题[Problems of English Translation on Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (2)6-9.

Zhou Shumei 周书梅. (2013). 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[Translation Studies from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory]. ''山东省农业管理干部学院学报'' Journal of Shandong Agricultural Engineering College 30(5)138-140

--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 03:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=Machine Translation=
==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==
<center>莫玲 Mo Ling </center>

===Abstract===

Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also prospered in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of "1 + 1 > 2". This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.

===Key Words===

Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility

===题目===

机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？

===摘要===

科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。

===关键词===

人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合

===Introduction===

In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology.(He Liutao 2018,17)

Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on human to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique.(Liang Jie 2020,18)

Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” Toward this doubt, The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)

Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.

===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===

====2.1 Human Translation====

=====2.1.1 The Advantages =====

As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges.Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them have an encyclopedic knowledge. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

Thirdly, people have a capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

=====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====

However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result it causes a repetition of the same work they have done before.It is shown from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)

Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)

====2.2 Machine Translation====

=====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====

In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimum choice for many people.（Zhu Chaowei 2018,102）

Besides the adoption in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. "Translation headset" is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. "After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network)," said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. " Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).

With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has developed a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,21)

=====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====

Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation.(Liang Jie 2020,17)In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:

江雪

唐柳宗元

千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。

孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。

'''Version of Baidu Translation'''

River Snow

Birds flying away,

The trail of thousands of people;

A lone boat with a straw hat,

Fishing alone in cold river snow.

'''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''

Fishing in snow(Xu Yuanchong,2000)

From hill to hill no bird in flight,

From path to path no man in sight;

A lonely fisherman afloat

Is fishing snow in lonely boat.

Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty described in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may be puzzled about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)

Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meanings of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.

Example:

When Zhang San is sending money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please pay attention to the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,22)

领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)

张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)

领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)

张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)

领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)

张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)

领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)

Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology is always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

====3. Computer-Aided Translation====

To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to a half-automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====

=====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====

Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a "language database storing the original text and its translation". During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT is also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation.(Chen Yi 2018,31)

The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also produce corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).

=====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====

After stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator,it is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.(Chen Yi 2018,31)

Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation.(Global Encyclopedia)

Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).

=====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====

After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the number of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofreading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).

====3.2 Current Situation====

Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before.(Hua Fuwei 2015.8.5,Douban)

However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only store hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge an idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want.(He Liutao 2018,18)

Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, and thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person.(Yao Li 2020,202)

====3.3 Prospect====

Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation softwares. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)

===4. Suggestions===

Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the unstoppable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. There is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,108)

In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly pursued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”.(Qiu Cui, Chen Xue 2012,8)

At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperors, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick.(Qiu Cui & Chen Xue 2012,8)

In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the outbreaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they had lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts were intensified. Finally, the Revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down.(Qiu Cui,Chen Xue 2012,8-9)

Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this technology is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.(Liang Jie 2020,18）

In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. Similarly Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the deficiency of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are "985" universities and "211" universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pays much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period, most of our courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to CAT courses.(Lv Lisong & Mu Lei 2007,37)

This may resulted from the lack of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourages the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more teachers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has opened a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106-108)

===5. Conclusion===

Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

Human beings are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind is familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

While the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165).

In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth.

At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the computer-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

===References===

Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.

Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation "Fishing in Snow"] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.

He Liutao. 何刘涛.(2018) 人工智能背景下计算机辅助翻译在中国发展的思考[On the Development of Computer-aided Translation in China Under the Background of Artificial Intelligence] 英语广场[English Square], 17.

计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.

Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.

Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong. 罗华珍,潘正芹,易永忠. (2017) 人工智能翻译的发展现状与前景分析[Analysis of the Development and Prospect of Artificial Intelligence Translation] 电子世界[Electronics World], 21.

Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.

Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.

计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.

Qiu Cui,Chen Xue. 仇萃, 陈雪. (2012) 浅析中国的闭关锁国政策[On China's closed door policy] 现代物业[Modern property Management],8.

Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.

Xu Yuanchong. 许渊冲. (2000) 唐诗三百首[Translation of Three Hundred Tang Poems].

Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.

Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 102-108.

==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi MTI 英语笔译==

'''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''

英语笔译袁天翼

摘要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。

关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略

'''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

'''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation.

'''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies

'''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

'''I. Introduction'''

"The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English." (Reiss 2004,12).

"As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture".（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live.

'''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''

Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. "Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities."（Yang Yang 2020, 34）

Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? "Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)

Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.

Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”.

Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”.

Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”.

Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. "

Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, "Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs."

However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.

"In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation ."(Lv Hefa 2005,38)

“The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements in thirteen service fields. "Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication."(Wang Xunian 2020,69)

To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. "Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication ".(Pinkham John 2000, 156)

'''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''

'''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''

To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. "There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs."(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)

[[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&fm=27&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake.

Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.

A public sign in the Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads "Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor". More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake.

Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc.

No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads "The rockery danger, pleases no climb", whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”

First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, and this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it.

3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation

Knowing a little about English, and beginning to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate."Some common mistakes in public signs translation in daily life have brought a very bad impact on the image of the city; What's more, it will affect China's international image."(Zheng Yuguo 2020,138)

On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. "To understand the language style of Public signs in English, it is imperative to carry out idiomatic and standardized translation of public signs in Chinese."(Pang Yan 2020, 34)

No.4, this is a sign hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads "out of the cup area". It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine.

As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate.

Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that, a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!All those will bring big and standing jokes.

No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads" tourists get off area". Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run.

Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads "up the mountain". The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management.

No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads "more China, more fashion". At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”.

Once foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?

'''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''

It is just the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. "Errors and ambiguities in public signs are not allowed, as they can lead to disorientation, confusion, and lessening of the force of the warning."(Pan Xutong 2020, 251)

[[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8
[https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]

No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error.

[[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”.

[[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10
[https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public
sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve.

As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong.

Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”.

3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information

Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes."Standardized translation of public signs can improve the international language environment of cities, on the other hand, it is responsible for improving the level of urban opening to the outside world."(Liu Peiyu 2020, 67)

No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads " carefully hot". Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected.

[[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&fm=27&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean?

I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay.

[[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13
[https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch
your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners.

Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay.

Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”.

From so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. "As an important part of the translation industry, the translation of public signs has high academic value and research value."(Qian Zheng 2020, 191)

At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. "Due to the specific role of public signs, their translation is different from literary translation and has powerful functional characteristics."(Liu Hui 2020, 43)

IV. Public Sign Translation Methods

There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan 2015,44) maintains in her paper that, "the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds.

'''4. 1 Amplification'''

Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. "Public signs, as an important window for the external publicity of the city image, are increasingly valued in their English translation status"(Fu Li 2020, 123)

For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. "Public signs are information-type and calling-type texts, which should focus on the information transmission of the original text in translation. Therefore, communicative translation can be regarded as a good theoretical basis."(Shen Jianwen 2020, 69)

'''4. 2 Ellipsis'''

To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”.

'''4. 3 Re-translation'''

Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”.

'''4. 4 Backward Translation'''

Here are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”.
The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. "

'''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''

"Theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. "(He Xueyun 2006,57)

When doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. "To strengthen the research on the Translation of public signs into English, improve the translation quality of bilingual public signs and improve the translation of bilingual public signs are the urgent tasks to promote the cross-cultural communication of city image."(Niu Haihua 2020, 118)

'''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''

The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error.

“This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing.

One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes
“Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”

'''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''

One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning.

The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity.

'''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''

When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples.

“Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake.

'''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''

As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth.
For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail.

Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added.

'''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. "In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. To optimize the translation quality of public signs, the most important way is to realize the standardization of the translation of public signs."(Ding Ying 2020,78)

High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. "Public signs are the most common practical language in people's lives."(Gu Zhe 2020, 102)

At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. "Public signs have a strong linguistic function and social value. Pragmatic or social pragmatic failures caused by cultural differences often occur in the translation of public signs. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the cultural connotation of the original text in translation."(Li Jing 2020, 229)

High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China."The translation error of public signs is mainly due to the translator's lack of adequate understanding of the linguistic and cultural framework of English."(Guan Chen 2020, 79)

Internally, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. "It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image" .(Guo Jinghong 2019, 154)

In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. "The translation of public signs from Chinese to English needs to consider the actual situation of English speakers and abide by international uniform rules, so that foreign friends can directly understand the contents of public signs."(Song Yanbei 2020,64)

"The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication". (Yang Hongyu, 2019) Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go.

There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. "Only when the relevant departments attach great importance to public signs and the people cooperate closely, the translation of public signs can be solved and improved."(Li Huiwen 2020, 23)

'''VII. Conclusion'''

So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. "Whether there are standards and norms for translating public signs into English in public places has a direct impact on foreign friends' impression of a city, which directly reflects the degree of internationalization of the city."(Song Yanbei 2020 ,61)

Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. "It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures". (Liu Xiaoping, 2019)

A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream.

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[7]傅莉.(2020)柯桥旅游景点公示语英译问题及对策文学教育(上)(10):123-125.

[8]顾哲.(2020)河南自贸区双语公示语翻译研究黄河水利职业技术学院学报32(04):102-104

[9]国家标准委.（2017）公共服务领域英文译写规范

[10]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式海外英语(23)154-155.

[11]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59.

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History of Translation Studies 5

2020-12-21T11:56:06Z

Blank: /* Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Translation Thoughts=

==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation-李玉 Li Yu==

==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==

<center>林敏 Lin Min </center>
===Abstract===
Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significance of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauties principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.

===Key words===
Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty

===题目===
功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达

===摘要===
功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。

===关键词===
功能对等论，三美原则

===1. Introduction ===
With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose.

''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have tried to translate this prose, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating.

Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as a standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。

Here, this thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauties” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.

=== 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===
Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .

====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====
''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.（Han ,2018 ）

In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurrs to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wanders lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that "this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）."

====2.2 The Two English Versions ====
''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and is selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.（Chen ,2018）

===3. The Basis of Theory ===

====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====
The first scholar in history to propose the equivalence effect is the British translation theorist Alexander Fraser Tytler in 1790. He defined the “good translation” in his book ''A Brief Introduction to Translation Principles''. He introduced that the good translation should completely transfer the advantages of the original work to another language so that the target language readers could clearly understand and feel strongly as the original readers do. This is to say that a good translation should be able to produce the same effect as the original in different linguistic societies. Then, the German translation theorist Kaul called it a comparable effect in his book ''The Art of Translation'' in 1896.

Nida’s translation theory was formed in the 1960s and introduced to China in the 1980s. The functional equivalence principle is one of his central translation ideas. In 1964, Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Toward Science of Translating'', proposing to shift the focus of translation research from the attention of static text information to reader’s attention to the dynamic information of the text. In ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined this theory again. He proposed that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Here, the dynamic equivalence refers to the functional equivalence. The basic point of functional equivalence is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by readers with that of the recipient of the target text. It requires readers of the target text to be able to perceive the original text when understanding the translation.

====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====
Xu Yuanchong ,the highly respected translator and famous professor, is known as “the only person who translates Chinese poems into English and French”. He introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties”principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book ,he said that “the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem.”(Xu, 2003) Xu Yuanchong said that “in translation, the beauty in sense is the most important, beauty in sound comes next and the last is beauty in form, when it is difficult to achieve them all, translator should stress beauty in sense.”And professor Xu also claimed that the “Three Beauties” principles can use in researching and studying the translation of prose.(Xu, 2003)

===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===

Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze whether the two English versions of such prose achieve the degree of function equivalance.

====4.1 ====
Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:

Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)

Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.

However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point.

Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.

However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.

Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.

====4.2 ====
The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)
The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:

Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.

First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.

Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.

To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .

Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.

To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .

====4.3 ====
Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。”So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style? (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)

In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.

Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty.

The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.

Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.

All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form.

Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

“袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the ''OED'', which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.

Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .

===5. Conclusion===
We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.

Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.
--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 07:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Reference===
* Leech G N,(2001) Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.
* Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[''Overseas English'']. 2018.7
* Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian.韩征顺,王健. （2008）月朦胧,荷朦胧,雾蒙蒙,意浓浓——《荷塘月色》四译文“模糊美”研究. [A Study on the “Fuzzy Beauty” of the Four Translations of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''] .西安外国语大学学报.[ Journal of Xi’an International Studies University] 第16卷　第4期.Vol. 16 Issue 4
* Liu Huiqun.刘慧群(2015).《荷塘月色》修辞翻译管窥[ A Glimpse of Rhetorical Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 语文学刊 [''Chinese Journal'']外语教育教学[Foreign Language Education and Teaching ].2015年第10期. 2015, Issue 10
* Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲.(1978)毛泽东诗词四十二首.[Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong]. 洛阳：中国人民解放军外国语学院[Chinese People's Liberation Army Institute of Foreign Languages] 1978.
* Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang杨宪益，戴乃迭(1990,5). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. 英语学习[''English Learning''], 1990(5).
*Yuan Lei.袁雷.功能对等理论指导下的散文英译及三美分析——《荷塘月色》的两个英译本比较[ On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence]贵州师范大学.[Guizhou Normal University]
* Zhu Ziqing.朱自清(1927).荷塘月色[''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''].全日制普高高一语文第一册第 5 课.[General High School Chinese Book 1 Lesson 5],原载 1927年7月10日《小说月报》第18卷第7期[originally published in ''Novel Monthly''].北京：人民教育出版社[ Beijing: People’s Education Publishing Society]
* Zhu Chunshen.朱纯深(1992). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''.中国翻译.[''Chinese Translation'']. 1992, (1).--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Form and Spirit in Translation -文偲荇 Wen Sixing, 202020080649 亚非语言文学==
<center> 文偲荇 Wen Sixing </center>

===Abstract===
Both the form and the spirit should be pursued in translation, which is a dialectical relationship. However, in translation, it often loses its spirit because of various factors that lead to excessive pursuit of formal resemblance. It is very important to deal with the problem between the formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance in translation. While emphasizing the spiritual resemblance, do not forget the formal resemblance. If possible, try to achieve a balance between the two, and make a choice in the specific context. Only in this way can the translation realize the new unity of the form and content of the source language in the target language.

===Key words===
Formal resemblance; Spiritual resemblance; Form and Content; Dialectical unification

===题目===
论翻译中的形的贴合与神的韵味

===摘要===
翻译时应追求形神兼备，这两者是一种辨证关系，但在翻译时常常会因为各种因素导致过度追求形似而失去神韵。处理好翻译中形似与神似之间的问题至关重要。在强调神似的同时不要忘记形似，在可能的情况下尽量达成两者之间的平衡，而在特定的语境下也可做出取舍，才有利翻译在译入语中实现传达原语形式和内容新的统一。

===关键词===
神似与形似；形式与内容；辨证统一

===1. Introduction===

----
====1.1 Definition====
Formal resemblance means that when translating, the target text should be consistent with the original text in terms of words, sentence structure, expression and figurative means. And spiritual resemblance means that when translating, we should try to keep the spirit and charm of the original work and achieve the artistic effect of the original work.

"Form", in translation activities, is the most important refers to "language". And "deformation" is what we call "language transformation". From the source language to the target language, "deformation", that is, "language transformation", is inevitable. The change of sound and shape, as well as the combination of sound, shape and meaning should also be changed. And "spirit", to use the terminology of contemporary linguistics, refers to the product of "linguistic activities".

From the point of view recognized by the current translation circle, "spirit" refers to "meaning" to a large extent, but the problem lies in the definition of "meaning", and the linguistic field has not formed a unified view. In fact, many debates about "spirit" and "form" are more or less rooted in the understanding of "spirit" and "form".(Xu Jun 2003,01)

====1.2 Spiritual resemblance in Translation====
The spiritual resemblance is first put forward by Fu Lei. He said, "As far as effect is concerned, translation should be like painting. What is sought is not resemblance in form but resemblance in spirit." (Fu Lei, 1950). Zhu Shenghao also put forward the idea of "keeping the spirit of the original". He said, "The aim of the book is to preserve the spirit of the original as far as possible. Must be forced to seek the next, also must be clear and clear words, faithfully convey the meaning of the original; However, the hard translation with word-for-word contrast is not appreciated. "(Zhu Shenghao, 1954). “神”, means the spirit of the original. Good literary works always have rich feelings, profound artistic conception, strong appeal and strong artistic effect.

===2. The relationship between Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance===

====2.1 Correlation====
Yan Fu, said in ''Theory of natural selection'', "Three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expression and elegance". "Faithfulness" means that the meaning does not differ from the original text, that is, the translation should be accurate, not deviate, not omit, and not add or subtract meanings at will. "Expression" means not sticking to the original form, but making the translation smooth and clear; "Elegance" means that the words chosen in the translation should be appropriate and the article itself should be quaint and concise. In translation, it is difficult to be faithful to the ideological content of the original text. However, if you correctly understand the original text without "expressing" it in a smooth translation, it is equivalent to no translation. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on "expressing" at this time. Since then, the expression of translation has become the focus of translation studies.

Formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance is two different means of translating expression, question of "form" and "spirit" in translation also is one of the most discussed and most difficult fundamental issues to be unified. "The relationship between form and spirit, which directly reflects the relationship between signifier and signified, which is closely related to the means and ends of translation. The so-called means is the transformation of form, while the end is the rebirth of spirit." (Xu Jun 2003, 1). Fundamentally speaking, "form" and "spirit" are interdependent. No "form" means no "spirit".

However, the saying that "sprit follows form", which we often emphasize, gives form the primary character as the material basis for spirit's existence. "Form" is concrete, and the relationship between "form" and "spirit" involves every aspect of human life. The discussion about "body" and "soul" is, to a certain extent, a dispute about the relationship between "form" and "spirit". "soul" and "flesh" in religion, "substance" and "spirit" in philosophy, "form" and "content" in literature, etc, all originate from the fundamental problem of "form" and "spirit". "As far as translation is concerned, the question of "form" and "spirit" can be said to be an obvious paradox. The contradiction lies in the fact that "form" and "spirit" are interdependent and inseparable in nature, while the fundamental task of translation is to achieve the rebirth of "spirit" through "form" transformation". (Xu Jun 2003, 2)

====2.2 In translation, numerous factors may cause the Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance out of step====

=====2.2.1 Metaphors and Associations=====
Due to the different ways of expression in the two languages, the metaphors and associations used in SL(source language) are often unacceptable to TL(target language) readers, or TL readers cannot understand them at all. Or from the surface structure, target language is similar to source language said, but in the sense is not exactly the same, even lost a thousand miles. In this case, for example, the expression form of source language is still used in translation and try to be similar in appearance, which is bound to form a semblance, with similar appearance and spirit completely lost.

ex）"A man may break a word with you,sir,and words are but wind."(SL)

“先生，跟你说话的人可能会失言，而言语总会随风而逝。”(TL)

"Break a word with you" and "words are but wind" are all metaphors in English that may be difficult for non-native speakers to understand when translated.

ex）"The rain came down in long knitting needles."(SL)

“雨滴像长长的编织针一样落下。”(TL)

"Long knitting needles", is a special thing that exists in the context of a native speaker, so non-native speakers are likely to have no accurate concept of it, so it's hard to fully grasp the metaphor even with an honest translation.

=====2.2.2 The cultural differences=====
The translator and the author have different cultural backgrounds, so their understanding of the original text is naturally different. This difference in understanding is mainly due to the influence of preconceived notions. This is a pervasive cultural phenomenon.

ex）He is really the man in the moon(SL)

“他是个真正的月老”(TL)*

“他是个真正远离世俗的人”(TL)

In Britain, people traditionally think of the dark shadow of the moon as a person. The moon is far from the earth, the people in the moon of the nature, he must be unknown to the human world. So He is really a man in the moon means "He is really a man out of the world"(他是个真正远离世俗的人). Under the influence of traditional Chinese culture, once people see the image words "moon" and "man" combined together, they will naturally think of "Yuelao(月老)"——The legendary god of marriage, which leads to the deviation in translation. (Niu Chuangyue 2006, 215)

ex）He is always politically correct(SL)

他总是政治正确(TL)*

他说话四平八稳(TL)

Many people take this sentence that "He is always politically correct" as "He is always correct in politics", which is in line with the Chinese mindset, but it's not what it says. Politics in Chinese refer to principles of thought and ideology while in English politics refer to how they approach people. "He is always politically correct" is not "He is always correct in politics", but "He's smooth talking."

=====2.2.3 The context of languages changes=====
The surface layer of words, is a relatively fixed objective reality; And its deep, namely its connotation, but often because of the person's subjective will shift. For language learners and users, it is not difficult to get familiar with the surface, but to grasp the connotation of its continuous shift. To grasp the connotation of words is to analyze the actual meaning of users in a specific context, which is also known as "understanding" in translation. The change of context can be divided into subjective and objective. The so-called subjective change refers to the meaning given to words by users for certain needs; And the objective change is the change in meaning caused by the natural environment.

ex) Made in China(SL)

（由）中国制造(TL1)

（在）中国制造(TL2)

Made in China was, of course, “由中国制造”, before western multinationals entered the country. But when multinational companies enter China, the products they set up in factories in China are still marked "Made in China", but they are not “由中国制造” but “在中国制造”. Made in China, likewise, is different by circumstance, either “由中国制造” or “在中国制造”, of which its connotation is different. Therefore, when understanding the original text, it is not enough to just focus on the literal itself, More attention should be paid to the impact of changes in social history and context.

=====2.2.4 Human factors=====
"Language is a dog". It means that people are subject to language. In fact, this metaphor only illustrates one aspect of the relationship between man and language, namely, man's passive adaptation to language changes. Such passive adaptation certainly exists objectively. But a closer look reveals that the so-called passive adaptation is also due to some human factors rather than the powerful inertia of non-language itself.

On June 20, 2005 British farmers grow potatoes held a noisy protest in London, protesting the Oxford English dictionary, included the couch potato (refers to passive while sitting idly spend your leisure time, especially all day watching TV or DVD), think it said the potatoes too unhealthy, so strongly asked the Oxford English dictionary, delete the entry with couch slouch replace the couch potato.

This event vividly illustrates the human element of semantic change. Potato is originally a plant without any emotional factors, but it has been artificially given some kind of associative meaning. In a sense, of course, this is an expression of the richness of language, but this richness comes at the cost of deducing the actual meaning of specific concepts. If we compare documents from hundreds or thousands of years ago with the languages we speak today, we will find a general phenomenon that today's languages are much more complex and abstract than those of old. The reason is that we are constantly deducing the semantic meaning of specific concepts or words for various rhetorical purposes.

In the concrete application of language, such deduction exists objectively and is also the concrete manifestation of the normal function of language communication. However, in translation, the translator should try to avoid the appearance of such deduction and manifestation, or at least control it within a certain limit, which may lead to the semantic variation of the primitive concept in the translation. (Zhang Rui 2015, 117)

====2.3 Balance of Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance in Translation====
Of course, it is best to retain the original spirit in translation, but is form and spirit necessarily contradictory? The answer is clearly no. This is because sometimes formal resemblance is spiritual resemblance. The ideological content and emotional charm of a literary work must be expressed in a certain form. Sometimes the original text has some metaphors or associative images, vivid and lifelike, with strong appeal, the emotion and artistic conception appear on the paper, and the source language habits are also close to the target language. At this time, keeping the original form of the translation actually plays a role of spirit evocative. By keeping this form, the translation can achieve the unity of form and spirit.

ex) He was a friendly and very hospitable man.(SL)

他是个友善而又十分好客的人。/他为人友善，热情好客。(TL)

ex)Though somewhat pompous, he was an entertaining companion.(SL)

虽然有些浮夸，（仍不免承认）他是个娱人的伴侣。(TL)

ex)He was a man of good understanding and talents.(SL)

他为人通达而富有才情。(TL)

ex)There are people to do everything for money.(SL)

为了钱什么事情都有人做。/有些人为了钱无所不为。(TL)

The above examples show that, at some point, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance can achieve a harmonious unity. Proper formal equivalence not only helps to preserve the language style of the original text, but also enriches the expression form of the target language. Such expression can achieve both the form and the spirit of the target language, on the one hand, it can retain the form of the original language, on the other hand, it cannot lose its spirit.

====2.4 Choice====

=====2.4.1 The pursuit of spiritual resemblance first=====
But in more cases, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance cannot be both.In the translation of literary works, the pursuit of a similar-looking translation lacks vitality. It would be best if the two languages can have both formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance. However, due to great differences in thinking mode, cultural basis and language structure of the two languages, especially the target language and the source language belong to two different language families with great cultural differences, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the formal resemblance and the spiritual resemblance.

In this case, if the blind pursuit of form similarity, the pursuit of language structure, vocabulary, grammar and other aspects of equivalence, will make the translation stiff, obscure, difficult to understand. For example, in English-Chinese translation, translators with low proficiency are often unable to get rid of the linguistic structure and form of the original text, resulting in a large number of European languages appearing in the Chinese translation.

Professor King Shenghua, a famous Hong Kong translator, once criticized this Europeanized language and called it "translated style". "What is 'translated style' ?" she said, “The word 'translationese' in English. In the past, it has been called the "translation cavity." (King Shenghua, 2006). Which means the translation has a strange-sounding, and unbearable tone of European language. However, up to now, the "translation cavity" is no longer enough to describe this phenomenon, because the evolution so far has formed a style, which appears not only in the translation, but also in the daily life of writing, meeting and communication. This phenomenon is not conducive to the development of translation. From the following examples, you can see the awkwardness of pursuing only the form of translation.

ex)There was much traffic at night and many mules on the road with boxes of ammunition on each side of their pack—saddles and gray motor trucks that carried men, and other trucks with loads covered with canvas that moved slower in the traffic.(SL)

晚上交通甚繁，有许多骡子走过，鞍子驮着军火箱子，灰色的摩托货车装着人，此外，还有一些装货的货车，上面用帆布盖着，走起来慢一点。(TL)*

夜间，这里运输繁忙，路上有许多骡子，鞍子的两侧驮着弹药箱，灰色的卡车上坐满了士兵，还有一些辎重车辆，用帆布盖着，在路上慢慢的行驶着。(TL)

Boxes, motor trucks, and trucks were used to identify the “军火箱子”,“摩托货车”, and “装货的货车”, totally be loyal to the source language. But in literary translation, the translation needs to consider the specific context. The writing background of this article is the period of war, so the translator should also put these words in the specific writing background of war, i.e. the “弹药箱”, “卡车”, “辎重车辆” in the next translation. The translation here obviously violates the original meaning and is a kind of betrayal to the original text. However, this kind of betrayal is the result of the translator's proper re-creation after considering the writing background of the original text. That is to say, in the process of translation, the translator lays emphasis on the spiritual resemblance of the original text, and thus abandons the formal resemblance in part.

ex)“原始森林景区是一个最具自身特点的生态观光区。放眼沟畔，‘林涛万顷接天碧，幽谷百丈入地青’ 的峡谷奇观，总会让人长久驻足; 登上矗立于沟畔的望火楼极目远眺，会真切体验登临泰山那种‘会当凌绝顶，一览众山小’的感觉。”(SL)

“The scenic primitive forest, as an eco-tourism place of interest, possesses its distinctive style. No tourists will not take time to enjoy the canyon spectacle: the vast expense of trees choiring in the wind and the deep valley dressed in green stretches long and deep. When climbing up the fire-watching tower and gawking into the distance, tourist scan experience the sense: "I have now ascended the mountain's crest that dwarfs all peaks under my feet", just as standing on top of Mount Tai. ”(TL)

“Artistic creation originates from a different national (aesthetic standard). As for the translation of artistic conception, some uncertain factors, such as language structure, narrative method, aesthetic method and context creation, often make it difficult for the translation to realize the absolutely correct "equivalence". The implication of this is that contextual translation has a lot of arbitrariness (i.e., asymmetrical equivalence) and is often not limited to any theory. This arbitrariness is reflected in the inspiration generation and Aesthetic creation of the translator in the process of translation.

In other words, the translator is affected by the artistic conception of the original text, arouses infinite emotion and artistic conception, and naturally puts this feeling into the translation. The key lies in the expressiveness, that is, the fluency and accuracy of the narration, and the completion of the transformation from one kind of beauty to another. ” (Zhang Ju 2011, 76)

=====2.4.2 Formal resemblance first=====
The choice of formal resemblance is preferred, mostly in the case of neat alignment and elegant form. For example, the translation of Chinese couplets, or poems, such as antithetical couplets, is a very important form of text.In the translation of general text, content is the primary form. However, when translating poetry, both content and form must be paid equal attention to. For poetry, form is often an integral part of the content that cannot be divided.

ex)《芣苢》：“采采芣苢，薄言采之。采采芣苢，薄言有之。采采芣苢，薄言掇之。采采芣苢，薄言捋之。采采芣苢，薄言袺之。采采芣苢，薄言襭之。”(SL)

Gathering plantain, Here we go plucking it; Gathering plantain, Here we go picking it. Gathering plantain, Quick fingers strip it; Gathering plantain, By handfuls pull it. Gathering plantain, Here we fill skirts with it; Gathering plantain, Belt up full skirts. (translated by Yang Xianyi)(TL)

ex)You say that you love rain, but you open your umbrella when it rains...
You say that you love the sun, but you find a shadow spot when the sun shines...
You say that you love the wind, But you close your windows when wind blows...
This is why I am afraid; You say that you love me too...(SL)

你说烟雨微芒，兰亭远望；后来轻揽婆娑，深遮霓裳。
你说春光烂漫，绿袖红香；后来内掩西楼，静立卿旁。
你说软风轻拂，醉卧思量；后来紧掩门窗，漫帐成殇。
你说情丝柔肠，如何相忘；我却眼波微转，兀自成霜。(TL)

It can be seen that in order to maintain the evenness and the artistic conception of the poem, many images and function words that were not in the original text were added in the translation. Thus it can be seen that it is of course ideal to achieve spiritual resemblance in translation, but it is also a choice to achieve formal resemblance. As long as it conveys the connotation of the original text and achieves functional equivalence, it should be regarded as a success.

===3. Discussion on Form and Spirit===
It should be noted that in the history of translation, the thinking about "form" and "spirit" has been going on almost all the time. In the 20th century, there have been many heated discussions about "form" and "spirit" in Chinese literary translation, and the focus of the discussions is mainly on whether translation should seek formal resemblance or spiritual resemblance. On the surface, it does not seem to be a problem whether the translation should seek resemblance in form or in spirit, because seeking resemblance is not and should not be the purpose of translation.

“However, those who advocate formal resemblance believe that only by seeking formal resemblance first can the spiritual resemblance be guaranteed. But the school that advocates spiritual resemblance thinks, shape resemblance is hard to find, can rely on spiritual resemblance only. The former pursues the first appearance and then spirit, and "both form and spirit" is the best realm; The latter takes "spiritual resemblance" as the only pursuit, and clearly puts forward that "what the translation seeks for is not in appearance but in spiritual resemblance". Due to the difference in emphasis between the formal resemblance school and the spiritual resemblance school, there are also differences in translation methods. The former advocates literal translation while the latter advocates free translation.” (Xu Jun 2003, 02)

The discussion of form and spirit in translation can be traced back to Mao Dun's article "Responsibility and Efforts of New Literature Researchers", published in ''Fiction Monthly'' (1921), in which he proposed that "the most important artistic color of a literary work is the spirit of the work. Chen Xiying also published "on Translation" in ''New Moon''(1929), proposing the theory of sculpture and painting. He pointed out that "translation is the same as painting, of course, imitation is the most important. But the imitation art of a original painting uses the same brush color, while the original text of a book and the translated text use very different languages. Due to different tools, the methods vary greatly." (Chen Xiying,1921). Chen also divides translation into three levels, formal resemblance, meaning resemblance and spiritual resemblance. Chen's "Three Levels" theory is similar to Zhu Shenghao's "Three Levels": (spirit, interest and charm, and rigid translation) theory in translation of Shakespeare's plays.

Xu Yuanchong, a famous translator and professor of Peking University, also put forward the theory of "three likings", based on his own experience in poetry translation. In the ''Art of Translation'', he thought that in order to convey the beauty of meaning, sound and form of poetry, the degree of meaning resemblance, sound resemblance and shape resemblance in the translation can be changed. Jiang Feng, a translator, pursues resemblance in form followed by resemblance in spirit. He said in the afterword of translation of ''Selected Shelley poems'' that in translating poems, one should strive to be alike in form and spirit, because spirit lives in form, and those who lose his form are bound to perish his spirit. Bian Zhilin, also advocated that the translated poems should be translated in accordance with the original form.

Therefore, as far as translation is concerned, Mao Dun and Fu Lei advocate the emphasis on spiritual resemblance rather than formal resemblance, Jiang Feng advocates both form and spirit, while Bian Zhilin advocates that form resemblance is spiritual resemblance.

===4. Conclusion===
From the above content, we can know that there are many factors that influence the form and spirit in translation, and the emphasis on the form or spirit resemblance in translation depends on some specific situations, which need to be analyzed on a specific basis. For example, when translating ancient poems and poems, in order to keep the antithesis neat, we emphasize the form more; When translating long sentences with beautiful artistic conception, we usually put more emphasis on the spirit in order to preserve the beauty of artistic conception.

In the process of translation, to achieve the dialectical unity of form and spirit, at least two aspects need to be considered: one is the restriction of form on content; the other is the stylistic meaning of form itself. We should not only consciously convey the content of the original text, but also convey the formal meaning, so as to achieve a new unity of form and content in the target language, to produce a better translation and achieve a harmonious unity between form and spirit.

However, in some cases the formal resemblance is the spiritual resemblance. The two are not completely separated, but there is a part of you and a part of me in each other. Sometimes the formal resemblance is bigger than the spiritual resemblance, and sometimes spiritual resemblance is bigger than the formal resemblance. This is the dialectic of things, if we insist on consistency, it will backfire. Therefore, we should not only get a thorough understanding of the original text, in-depth study, strive for both form and spirit, grasp the key points and master them thoroughly, but also be prepared to abandon the form of the original text, grasp the essence of the original text, use appropriate form, the original text for artistic recreation, so as to strive for the ideal effect of spirit resemblance.

===Reference===
[1] Cui Yonglu. 崔永禄. (2002). 得意不可忘形——试论翻译中形与神的辨证关系. [Pride must not Be Lost in Shape -- On the dialectical relationship between form and God in Translation]. ''天津外国语学院学报''. [Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University] 1-5.

[2] Li Zhengguo. 李振国. (2016). 从奈达的功能对等理论视角探析英汉翻译中的“形神兼备”——以程雨民的《初次与约翰逊见面》译本为例. [An Analysis of "Both form and Spirit" in English-Chinese translation from the Perspective of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory -- A case study of Cheng Yumin's ''First Meeting with Johnson'']. ''贵州师范学院学报''. [Journal of Guizhou Normal University] 92-94.

[3] Niu Chuangyue. 牛喘月. (2006). 形与神俱,不可分离——从语义与语境的演变看中医翻译中的“常”与“变”. [Form and Spirit are inseparable -- "Chang" and "Chang" in TCM Translation from the Perspective of Semantic and Contextual Evolution]. ''中西医结合学报''.

[4] Pang Xuefeng. 庞学峰. (2013). 翻译中的文质之争与神形之辩. [The quality of the text and the form of the debate in translation]. ''赤峰学院学报(汉文哲学社会科学版)''. [Journal of Chifeng College (Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences edition)] 150-151.

[5] Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). “形”与“神”辨. ["Form" and "Spirit"]. ''上海外国语大学学报''. [Journal of Shanghai International Studies University] 57-66.

[6] Zhang Ju. 张巨. (2011). 汉英意境翻译中的形与神. [Form and Spirit in Chinese-English translation of Artistic Conception]. ''江苏外语教学研究''. [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu province] 74-78.

[7] Zhang Rui. 张蕊. (2015). 从形与神之矛盾看“翻译者即背叛者”. [From the contradiction between form and Spirit, "translator is a traitor"]. ''鸭绿江(下半月版)''. [The Yalu River (second Half)] 122+117.

[8] Zhang Xiaoman. 张小曼. (2006). 诗歌翻译中的形神问题——以杜甫《望岳》一诗的英译为例. [The Problem of Form and Spirit in Poetry Translation -- Taking The English translation of Du Fu's ''Wangyue'' as an example]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''. [Journal of Hefei University of Technology (Social Science edition)] 157-160.

--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Book Analysis: The Way of Transaltion: Theories and Application 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==
your student number and 专业are missing--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===
The Way of Translation:Theories and Applications closely circled around the mutual relationship between translation theory and practice to make explanation about translation studies. This article aims to make a summary about the original text, which includes a brief translation history, the present situation about the translation study, the detailed analysis about the “cultural turn” as well as some important redefined concept about translation studies and the deep reflection about the translation studies. The author would like to make some analysis about the book from different perspectives, includes the introduction, major contend, academic contributions, strength and weakness etc.

===Key Words===
translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose
Translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===
《翻译之道：翻译理论与实践》一书紧紧围绕翻译理论与实践之间的互动关系展开, 作者对中西翻译历史作出简要回顾，针砭时弊，对翻译理论与实践现状进行了切中的描述，深挖“文化转向”的来龙去脉，重新界定了翻译概念、目的与标准等概念，对理论与实践的现状作出深刻反思。本文将就原书出版背景、逻辑主线、学术立意、读后启发几个方面展开论述。

===关键词===
翻译理论与实践；“文化转向”；译介学；翻译学；文本目的

===Introduction===
About the Background
As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate their experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time.
After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject.
However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other.
Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.
Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches.

About the Author
Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.

The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.

====About the Background====
As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time.

After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject.

However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other.

Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.

Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====About the Author====
Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.

The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Main body===

====The brief introduction====
From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.
First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches.
Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent.
In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”.
The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators.
Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.

From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.

First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches.

Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent.

In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”.

The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators.

Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Specific Exposition====
To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.
He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal.
In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”.
In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent.
While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”.
This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus.
Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.
In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).
From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73).
However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth& Cowie, 2004:183).
Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn.
From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task.
First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.
The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators.
In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.

To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.

He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal.

In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”.

In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent.

While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”.

This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus.

Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).

From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73).

However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth& Cowie, 2004:183).

Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn.

From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task.

First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.

The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators.

In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===The writing feature===
====Complete system with extensive quotations====
In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice.
Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the "annual review" of Chinese translation studies.
For this reason, the author makes a research on the "cultural turn" which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as "equivalent translation exploration", "contemporary translation theory", "translation", "the basic framework of the translation in China" in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature "and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study.
The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.
In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.

In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice.

Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the "annual review" of Chinese translation studies.

For this reason, the author makes a research on the "cultural turn" which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as "equivalent translation exploration", "contemporary translation theory", "translation", "the basic framework of the translation in China" in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature "and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study.

The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.

In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.
--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Logical and philosophical Explanation====
At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined.
First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter "cultural turn", known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.
The translator's task is to "make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers". As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of "translation theory location map", can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.

At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined.

First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter "cultural turn", known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.

The translator's task is to "make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers". As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of "translation theory location map", can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Powerful Critism with strong evidence====
Throughout the full text, from the status quo of the theory and practice of the second chapter, especially the book in the last few chapters, the author through a large number of reading and rely on the accumulation of translation practice for a long time, have been put forward for the theoretical study and practice of translation problems in reality, the relationship between problem, theory research example, textual research is lax, citing uncertainty, terminology translation and the translation is not unified, there thinking logic and language logic problem, theory and problems such as monotonous and argument, and the question of whether cognitive process is objective, translator translation practice have a "betrayal" of the problem of the wind, vision, objective, to the point, In the last chapter, the author elaborated on the relationship between pure theory and translation, provided a way to combine theory with practice, and improved a complete methodology and action guide for us to better combine theory with practice.

===Conclusion===
From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.
Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities.

In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.
Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose.
With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas.
Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.
Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative.
Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”.
He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.
Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity.
He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject.
Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.
Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner.
To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research.
The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!

From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.

Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities.

In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.

Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose.

With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas.

Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.

Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative.

Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”.

He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.

Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity.

He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject.

Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.

Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner.

To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research.

The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:24, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Reference===
Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.
Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie：翻译研究词典[M]．外语教学与研究出版社，2005
谢天振，王宁翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展 [M]．复旦大学出版社，2017
曹明伦，翻译之道：理论与实践 [M]．保定：河北大学出版社，2007
甘雪梅．2010．“学、“术共生，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书[J]．湖北函授大学学报，(5)：110-111
黄中习．2008．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评[J]．北经济学院学报，(10)：150一l51
朱蕤．2010．对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以《翻译之道》为伽 R1．福建省外国语文学会2010年年会．厦门

Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.(缺少年份)

Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie.翻译研究词典．外语教学与研究出版社，2005（格式错误）

Xie Tianzhen, Wang Ning. 谢天振，王宁. (2017). ''翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展''. [Translation Studies: The Search and Development as an Independent Subject] 上海：复旦大学出版社[Shanghai: Fudan University Press].

Cao Minglun. 曹明伦. (2017). ''翻译之道：理论与实践''. [The Tao of Translation: Theory and Practice] 保定：河北大学出版社[Baoding: Hebei University Press].

Gan Xuemei. 甘雪梅. (2010)．“学、“术共生，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书. [Symbiosis of "Science and "Technology", "Dao" and "Apparatus" Mutually Reconcile: A Comment on Professor Cao Minglun's Book "The Tao of Translation: Theory and Practice"]. ''湖北函授大学学报''[Journal of Hubei Correspondence University] 110-111.

Huang Zhongxi. 黄中习．(2008)．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评. [Efforts to build a harmonious relationship between translation theory and practice: An introduction to the theory and practice of translation]. ''北经济学院学报''[Journal of North University of Economics]150一l51.

Zhu Yu. 朱蕤. (2010). 对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以《翻译之道》为例. [Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies: Taking "The Way of Translation" as an example]. 厦门：福建省外国语文学会2010年年会. [Xiamen: 2010 Annual Meeting of Fujian Foreign Language and Literature Association].--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=Translation Strategies=

==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==

===Abstract===
This paper studies the English version of ''seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the perspective of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory of translation. It can be found that this English version focuses on the target audience and uses appropriate translation strategies, methods and techniques in the light of the target audience's reading habits and cultural background, such as free translation, literal translation, shift, addition, omission, division and combination. As a result, the English translation’s vocabulary, discourse structure or expression can be easier to be accepted by the target audience, which is conducive to the dissemination of China's information and maximizes the communication effect of international news of China.

Keywords: Skopos Theory; translation strategies; translation methods；audience

===摘要===
根据汉斯・佛米尔翻译目的论的观点对《为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年》英译本进行研究，发现该译本以目标受众为着眼点，从目标受众的阅读习惯和文化背景出发，运用恰当的翻译策略、方法和技巧，比如意译、直译、转译、增译、减译等，因而译本的英语词汇、语篇结构或表达方式更易为目标受众接受，这有利于中国信息的传播，最大程度增强我国国际新闻的对外传播效力。

关键词: 目的论；翻译方法；翻译技巧; 受众

===Introduction===
''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' is a white paper published by the Information Office of the State Council of China in September 2019. In addition to the preface and conclusion, the full text consists of eight parts, and quotes a large amount of data to show in detail the progress of human rights in China since 1949; the people-centeredness of human rights; the ways to realize the protection of human rights; the remarkable achievements in the implementation of human rights; the continuous strengthening of human rights protection and China's contribution to promoting the cause of human rights in the world.

Nowadays, international political, economic and cultural exchanges are unprecedented frequent and in-depth. International information and culture should be welcomed by our country. At the same time, Chinese culture and values need to be spread. We should have our own voice in international exchange activities, to tell Chinese stories so that the world can better understand China(He Jiaying 2020,4). Therefore, the translation of Chinese international news plays an important role in cross-cultural communication and communication between China and foreign countries. Therefore，it is also worthwhile to study the translation of these news.

In ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'', its accurate and rigorous translation has played a positive role in shaping national image and building international discourse. There are a large number of words related to political system with Chinese characteristics in this text. These words often represent some important policies and current situation of human rights of our country. Accurate translation of these words is the key to correctly convey these messages.

Skopos theory focuses on the purpose of translation and holds that translation activities should adopt corresponding translation methods and techniques. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation work is mainly for the target audience. Its purpose is to achieve the re-dissemination of the original content and finally gain a certain communicative effect.

As a political document, ''seeking happiness for people: 70 years of progress on human rights in China'' can be regarded as government behavior, that is, the organizer and commissioner of translation is the government, and the translator is the institution and interpreter entrusted by the Chinese government. If the relationship between entrustment and entrustment is made clear, the purpose of translation is obvious. The Chinese government disseminates such information, like the concept of human rights, the way to realize the cause of human rights, the achievements of developing human rights, and China's contributions over the years, to English speaking countries on the basis of respecting their linguistic habits and cultural backgrounds. In this way，translators should observe translation principles and choose appropriate translation strategies under the guidance of this purpose.

The principle of coherence requires the translation to be logically clear and semantically cohesive, which can keep the Chinese style of political documents while making it accessible to readers. The principle of faithfulness requires the translator to accurately understand and grasp the connotation of article. (Luo Mazhang, 1984,124-126). On this basis, translators use translation techniques and methods to translate and interpret the original text, so that what readers understand from the English version is consistent with the information expressed in the original text. Moreover, according to the different characteristics of these words related to the political system with Chinese characteristics, we should adopt different translation strategies, methods and skills.

===A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory===
Skopos theory originated in Germany in the 1970s put forward by Hans Vermeer. It belongs to functional translation theory, in which it is the most important theory. It has a wide influence on text translation and is widely employed in translation. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any behavior has a purpose. The primary factor determining the process of translation is the purpose of translation (VERMEER HANS. J 1989:90). That is to say, translators shall exercise corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified in the light of the translation purpose. The translation strategy depends on the needs and expectations of the target language readers or audiences. Therefore, we can say that translation is a text that meets the needs of readers on the basis of translation purpose.

People pursuing skopos theory believe that skopos rules, coherence rule and fidelity rule should be followed in translation. The Skopos rule refers to that the translation behavior depends on the translation purpose, in other words the result determines the method; the coherence rule means that the translation must conform to the standard of intralingual coherence, namely, the translation must be comprehensible by the receiver and be meaningful in the target language communication; the faithfulness method refers to the existence of interlingual coherence between the original text and the target text, that is, the translation should be as faithful as possible to the original text (NORD C 2002,28).

Among the three laws, the rule of faithfulness is subordinate to the law of coherence, and at the same time, the two laws ultimately depend on the law of purpose. The translator should first ensure that the translation can achieve the intended purpose, then ensure the coherence of the translation, and finally ensure the consistency between the translation and the original (N. Zhao 2014, 98-101). We know that different cultures have different cultural customs and their own unique values, so translation is not an act of transforming one language into another. The translator should translate based on some specific requirements, combined with the specific demands of the translation, the target readers' reading habits and cultural background.

===The Employment of the Translation Strategies And Translation Methods in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===

====Foreignization Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====
In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him." (2006,229) It is shown that in translation, the language, literature and cultural characteristics of the original text should be retained to the full, and the foreign tone kept. The advantages of foreignization strategy are as follows: the structure of source language, poetic features can be introduced into the target language to enrich the expression of the target language; the target language readers can fully appreciate the exotic beauty, and thus promote the cultural exchange between different nationalities (Venuti, 1995). The defect of foreignization strategy is mainly reflected in the readability of the translation, that is, the translation may be stiff and not natural enough, which will affect the reception and dissemination of the target language among the target recipients.

=====Literal Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Literal translation is characterized by two main features: with regard to lexical meaning and rhetoric without the use of paraphrase, which distinguishes it from free translation; in the processing of lexical and syntactic structure, appropriate changes or transformations are allowed, for example, word order transformation is used to make the translation conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language, which distinguishes literal translation from word-for-word translation (Munday, J 2008,9). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

两个一百年 Two Centenary Goals; 当家作主 became masters of their country; 伟大复兴的中国梦 Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation;人类命运共同体 a global community of shared future;中共十八大 the 18th CPC National Congress;五位一体Five-point Strategy;习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想 Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era;民法通则和侵权责任法the General Principles of the Civil Law and Tort Liability Law

Analysis: with the continuous advancement of China's political and economic status in recent years, China has mastered a certain voice in the international community, and initially established a unique political discourse system. Therefore, some characteristic political words can be translated literally without causing difficulties for the foreign audience to understand.

=====Zero Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Zero translation does not demand any operation in translating. Some elements of the source language are directly introduced into the target language (Munday, J 2008,8). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1:中国以占全球6.6%的淡水资源和9%的耕地，养活了世界近20%的人口。
China feeds approximately 20 percent of the world's population using 6.6 percent of the fresh water resources and 9 percent of the arable land of the world.

Example 2:1949年末，全国城乡就业人员18082万人，其中城镇就业人员仅有1533万人，城镇失业率高达23.6%。
At the end of 1949 there were 180.82 million people across the country in employment, of whom only 15.33 million worked in urban areas.

Analysis: The white paper uses a large number of figures to specifically describe the changes and achievements of China since the implementation of human rights. For these large numbers, it is not necessary to translate them, but to keep the Arabic numerals directly. In this way, the translation is faithful to the original text. Besides, it is in line with the purpose of publicity translation.

=====Word-for-word translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Word-for-word translation refers to the translation of the original sentence by word without considering the differences in morphology, syntax and semantics between the two languages (Munday, J 2008,7). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

半殖民地半封建社会 semi-colonial and semi-feudal society；改革开放 the reform and opening up；一带一路”倡议 the Belt and Road Initiative

Analysis: The above political terms widely emerge in various documents and news in China, and also appear in a high proportion in all sorts of reports of foreign media. Therefore, even if word-for-word translation of above words is taken by translators, readers can also understand translations easily without additional translation or explanation, which reflects the principle of faithfulness to the original text in skopos theory.

====Domestication Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====
In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(2006:229). Translators should try to replace the source language, literature and culture with those being popular among the target language readers, and abide by the target language norms. The advantages of domestication are that the translation is smooth, easy to be understood and accepted by the target language recipients, or to meet the specific needs of the target language readers. The defects of domestication strategy are as follows: the loss of language, literature and cultural elements in the original text, which results in the target language recipients being deprived of the opportunity to appreciate foreign languages, literature and culture. This is not conducive to the enrichment and development of the language, literature and culture of the target country and the cultural exchange among different nationalities (Venuti,1995).

=====Free Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
The main feature of free translation is the use of paraphrase in the processing of lexical meaning and rhetoric, so as to reproduce the meaning of the original text smoothly and truly. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：四个全面”战略布局 Four-pronged Strategy

Analysis: Four pronged refers to the rake with four teeth. Through cultural borrowing, it vividly interprets a comprehensive strategy of four pronged, to illustrate that the strategic layout includes four aspects, and the contents of the four aspects should go hand in hand. This translation reproduces the lexical and syntactic structure of the source language as well as the form of the original language.

Example 2：新时代中国特色社会主义将人民对美好生活的向往作为奋斗目标。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, the people's aspiration to live a better life is the focus of all the country's work.

Analysis: The literal translation of “奋斗目标” is usually goal or purpose, but here it is translated as“the focus of all the country's work”，which emphasizes its importance in this context.

Example 3：世界各国在人权保障上没有最好，只有更好。
Every country has room for improvement in protecting human rights.

Example 4：个人权利只有与集体权利统一起来，才能实现人权的最大化。
Individual rights can only be maximized in the context of collective rights.

Example 5：新中国成立之初，社会保障尚属空白。
There was no social security system in China when the PRC was founded.

Example 6：绿水青山就是金山银山。
Lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets.

Example 7：截至2018年，西藏自治区已有117名学经僧人获得了格西“拉让巴”学位，68名僧人获得了中国藏语系高级佛学院“拓然巴”高级学衔。
By 2018 a total of 117 monks from Tibet had received senior academic titles in Lhasa and 68 from the High-level Tibetan Buddhism College of China.

Analysis: In example 3, "better" is translated into "there is still room", which is another expression to convey the same idea. Although the expression is different, but the meaning is the same, which means that there are always more efforts needed to be put into protecting human rights. In example 4, it uses “in the context” to vividly deliver the condition that individual rights are combined with collective rights. In example 5, “空白”actually refers that social security has yet to be popularized to the public. So it can't be literally translated into “blank”. The free translation here is a good expression of the original meaning. “绿水” in example 6 is not to emphasize that the water is green, but to indicate all the clear and clean waters and the currents, so it is lucid waters. In example 7,“拉让巴”and “拓然巴” are all translated into “senior academic titles”, which make the readers directly clear about its real connotation.

===The Employment on the Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory===
In the translation methods, apart from zero translation, transliteration and word-for-word translation, the other five translation methods will involve the usage of various translation techniques. There are many kinds of skills, but they can be generally classified into five kinds: omission, addition, division, combination and shift (M. F. Zhang 2009, 53-60). The following is a rough analysis of the translation techniques employed in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''.

====Omission Under Translation Skills====
Omission refers to the deletion of some complicated and redundant words, sentences or even paragraphs in the original text according to the needs of morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or due to some specific cultural norms of the target language (Reiss K 1971). By doing so, the original ideas can be expressed more concisely and smoothly, and then the translation can better achieve the specific translation purposes. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 中国人权事业的命脉所在、根本所在。
the foundations for the cause of human rights in China.

Example 2: 国家提出经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设、生态文明建设“五位一体”总体布局，使每个人的经济、政治、文化、社会、环境权利能够得到充分保障。
It puts forward the Five-point Strategy (promoting economic, political, cultural, social, and environmental progress in a coordinated way), so every citizen's rights can be fully protected in each of these spheres.

Example 3：中国的粮食总产量由1949年的11318万吨提高到2018年的65789万吨，耕地灌溉面积由1949年的1594万公顷扩大到2018年的6810万公顷。
Total grain output soared from 113.18 million tons in 1949 to 657.89 million tons in 2018, and the area of irrigated farmland from 15.94 million ha in 1949 to 68.1 million ha in 2018.

Example 4：中国从根本上消除了饥饿，持续改善了人民的营养水平。
It has succeeded in improving nutrition and eradicating hunger.

Example 5：截至2018年，全国已有84%的行政村实现生活垃圾收运处置体系基本覆盖。
By 2018, 84 percent of all administrative villages were provided with garbage treatment.

Analysis: in example 1, “命脉”and “根本” are all used to express the necessity of the cause of human rights, thus one of them can be omitted. In example 2, “economic, political, cultural, social and environmental spheres” has been mentioned in the preceding sentence, so the latter one can replace them with “each of these spheres”. In example 3 the verbs in the first and second sentences are both “soar”，so the latter one can directly be left out by the rules of English grammar. Example 4 directly through the phrase “has succeeded in” to show the results. "从根本上" and “水平” of “营养水平” is to emphasize with no much necessity in the translation, whose omission does not affect the original meaning. Example 5 only use the passive voice of "provide" that can succinctly and lucidly express the original meaning.

Example 6：因为有了新中国70年，中国人民的生活才更加幸福美满；因为有了新中国70年，我们的世界才更加繁荣发展；因为有了新中国70年，人类社会才更加丰富多彩。
As a result of the developments that have taken place in the PRC over the 70 years, the people of China are living a happier life, the world is more prosperous, and human society is more diverse and colorful.

Analysis: "因为有了新中国70年" has been repeated three times to strengthen the tone. While in the translation, it is only referred once to avoid wordiness. There are several other same translations using this skill in the following text. A large number of parallelisms often appear in Chinese political texts. When studying the translation of these sentences, we can find one thing in common, that is, repeated words can be translated only once, which reflects the concise characteristics of English language.

====Addition Under Translation Skills====
Additional translation refers to the reasonable and appropriate addition of certain words, sentences or paragraphs to the translation according to the needs of the morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or subject to certain norms of the target language, so as to better express the content of the original text and better realize the specific translation purpose (Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：人权是历史的、发展的。
Human rights are a historical and developmental concept.

Example 2：人类社会发展经验 the experience gained in human social development

Example 3：中国共产党带领人民深刻总结我国社会主义建设正反两方面经验。
Under the leadership of the CPC, the people review experiences and lessons drawn from socialist construction.

Analysis: Example 1 adds “concept”；Example 2 adds “gain”, a verb, to show the source of experience；Example 3 adds “lessons”, because experiences and lessons can be regarded as a pair of phrases that always appear together.

Example 4：改善城市和农村人居环境，开展生态修复、城市修补……生活垃圾收运处置体系建设。
Efforts have been made in several areas: improving the living environment in cities……transporting and disposing of household garbage in rural areas.

Example 5：国家建立了最低生活保障制度、最低工资保障制度……中小学义务教育制度等。
Chinese government has put into place a number of systems and mechanisms, including those dealing with subsistence allowances, the minimum wage……and compulsory education (primary and middle schools).

Analysis: Summary phrases have been added in several parts of the white paper to make the text clearer. Example 4 adds “efforts” to be the subject in order to clearly state what has been done by China；example 5 uses “systems and mechanisms” to outline its specific content one by one.

Example 6：新时代中国特色社会主义着眼于实现“两个一百年”奋斗目标和中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, China focuses on achieving the Two Centenary Goals and realizing the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

Example 7：依法保障宗教信仰自由。
China protects freedom of religious belief in accordance with the law.

Example 8：建立起世界上覆盖人口最多的社会保障制度。
China has established a social security system that covers the largest population in the world.

Example 9：尊重和保障人权 We must respect and guarantee human rights.

Analysis: when translating a Chinese sentence without subject into English, the subject mentioned above should be added in translation. Because in Chinese discourse, when the subject appears, it can be omitted in later sentences. As a hypotaxis language, English is stricter with its language structure. As an important part of a sentence, the subject cannot be omitted. Therefore, in examples 6-9, the subjects of “China” and “we” are added to the sentence to make the sentence complete.

====Division Under Translation Skills====
Division refers to dividing a sentence into two or more sentences, which can effectively solve the translation difficulties of long complex sentences and satisfy the expression habits of the target language and the reading habits of the audience (Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 中国共产党的领导，是中国人民能够享有人权并不断享有更加充分人权的根本保证，是全体中国人民的利益所在、幸福所在。
The Party's leadership is the fundamental guarantee for the people of China to have access to human rights, and to fully enjoy more human rights. This leadership is therefore in the interests of all people of China, critical for their pursuit of a happy life.

Example 2: 中国特色社会主义将“人权得到切实尊重和保障”作为全面建成小康社会的重要目标，从战略层面确立了人权事业的重要地位。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, full respect for and protection of human rights is an important goal of China's endeavors to build a moderately prosperous society in all respects. This establishes the importance of human rights from a strategic perspective.

Example 3: 多年来，中国始终把解决人民的生存权、实现人民的发展权作为第一要务，不断解放和发展生产力，致力于消除贫困，提高发展水平，为保障人民各项权利的实现创造了基础条件。
Prioritizing people's rights to subsistence and development, China has committed to liberating and developing productive forces, eliminating poverty, and enhancing its level of development. All this has laid the foundation for fulfilling the various rights of the people.

Example 4: 坚持人民在人权事业中的主体地位，把人民利益摆在至高无上的位置，让人民过上好日子，使发展成果更多更公平地惠及全体人民，让每个人更好地发展自我、幸福生活，让每个人都能够免于恐惧、不受威胁，是实现人人享有更加充分人权的真谛所在。
For everyone to fully enjoy human rights, we must uphold the people-centered approach……and ensure a good life for the people. We must ensure that the fruits of development offer greater benefits to all the people in a fair way……and prevent them from fear and threat.

Example 5: 国际社会应秉持和平、发展、公平、正义、民主、自由的人类共同价值，维护人的尊严和权利，推动形成更加公正合理包容的全球人权治理。
The international community should uphold the shared values of humanity – peace, development, fairness, justice, democracy and freedom. It must safeguard human dignity and rights, and strive for fairer, more reasonable and inclusive global human rights governance.

Example 6: 多年来，中国政府通过改革农村土地制度，稳定和完善农村土地承包关系，大力推进农田水利设施建设，使农业综合生产能力不断提升，主要农产品产量稳定增长。
Over the years the Chinese government has carried out rural land reforms to stabilize and improve land contracting system in rural areas. With improved irrigation infrastructure, China's agriculture has seen a continuing rise in productivity and steady increase in the output of main agricultural products.

Analysis: In example 1-6, the syntax is too long and there are too many clauses. Therefore, in order to avoid the syntax being too complicated, it is necessary to split it. At the same time, there are many non-subject sentences in Chinese while English sentences usually have subjects. Therefore, when translating Chinese sentences without subject into English, translators need to complete the subject of most sentences according to the context. For example, add pronouns “it”, “this”, or start with preposition "with". In this case, the translated sentences will make the readers more relaxed and comfortable in reading.

====Combination Under Translation Skills====
Combination refers to combining two or more sentences in the original text into one sentence. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 1982年，第五届全国人大五次会议通过了现行宪法。宪法明确规定了中国社会主义民主的主要内容和基本形态。
In 1982, the Fifth Session of the Fifth NPC adopted the current Constitution of the PRC, which clearly defines the substance and basic form of socialist democracy.

Example 2: 中国努力通过发展增进人民福祉，实现更加充分的人权保障。China strives to enhance people's wellbeing through development in order to better protect their human rights.

Analysis: Example 1 combines the two sentences with “which”, making the text more compact. In example 2, the combination is realized by “in order to”, which reflects the logical connection between sentences, and the purpose is clearer.

====Shift Under Translation Skills====
=====Shift From Active Voice to Passive Voice=====
There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：在新中国成立前夕，通过了具有临时宪法作用的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》。
The Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, which was adopted on the eve of the founding of the PRC and served as the provisional Constitution of China.

Example 2：第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议通过的《中华人民共和国宪法》。
The 1954 Constitution of the PRC, which was adopted at the First Session of the First National People's Congress (NPC).

Example 3：应当尊重人权发展道路的多样性
Diversity in developing human rights should be respected.

Example 4：尊重和保障人权
Human rights are respected and guaranteed.

Example 5：在当代中国的人权实践中，既重视集体人权的发展，又重视个人人权的保障。
In China, equal attention has been paid to developing collective rights and ensuring individual rights.

Analysis: Chinese uses more active voice while English more passive voice. Therefore, in the translation of the original sentences, the subject is put in front and the passive voice is used. In addition, Chinese often express the logical relations between words and sentences by context and word order while English needs clear connectives to express them. Therefore, it is often necessary to add connective words to express logical relations in translation from Chinese to English.

=====Class Shift=====
There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 从1950年起，对国营厂矿交通企业的生产和管理制度进行民主改革，建立工厂管理委员会和职工代表大会。
The democratic reform of the production and management of state-owned factories, mines, and transportation operators that started in 1950 set up factory management committees and workers' congresses in these entities.
Here the verb“民主改革”is shifted to a noun, and leads this sentence, which stresses the role of it.

Example 2人民基本居住条件显著改善。Improved housing conditions.

Example 3饮水安全获得切实保障。Safe drinking water.

Example 4国民健康水平持续提高。Better health for the people.

Example 5 经济凋敝、民不聊生 a shattered economy, a destitute populace

Analysis: In example 2-4, all the verbs are shifted to adjectives in above sentences, which become neater and terser. In example 5,“民不聊生” means ordinary people is too hard and poor to survive themselves. If just literally translate it like above, the sentence will not so succinct or regular as well as not conform to the sentence structure of four characters in parallelism.

===Conclusion===
This text introduces ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''. Because the white paper is a typical central document published by government, propagating the concept of human rights, practical measures and gains, and takes the comprehensive and accurate introduction as the purpose. What’s more, it is closely related to national interests and national image.

Based on its political characteristics, this paper studies its translation strategies, methods and techniques from the perspective of Skopos theory, and finds that the difference between the Chinese version and the English version is mainly due to the different readers. The English version is aimed at English audiences, and linguistic form and culture in England are different from China’s. For example, English uses more passive voice, while Chinese uses active voice; when translating Chinese without subject into English, except those passive voice translations, the correct subject should be added into the translation; English focuses more on logic and connection while Chinese on the meaning and content of text.

The differences may affect readers' understanding of the translation. Therefore, in the process of translation, translators should use appropriate translation techniques and methods according to their differences. Moreover, for such a political report, there are many official words, long sentences and heavy emphases on tone. Thus, the techniques of literal translation, division, addition and subtraction are frequently used.

From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation takes into account not only the function and purpose of the original text, but also the receptivity of the audience and the effect of the translation. Through the study of this white paper, we can see that translators need to stand on the perspective of the audience in the white paper translation, should shift from Chinese language patterns to western with facility, use appropriate translation methods, strategies and techniques, and be faithful to the original content in order to translate political intent clearly and accurately. In this way, misinterpretation, leaking and unclear translation can be avoided, so as to let foreign audiences can quickly and efficiently receive the information that the original text intends to pass on. This study can provide theoretical basis and good ideas for the future translators to find the best translation methods and strategies.

===References===
[1]Catford, J. C. (1965/2000). ''Translation Shift''. In Venuti, L.(ed.).

[2]Munday, J. (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications'' (2nd ed.) . London &New York: Routledge.

[3]M. F. Zhang. (2009). Text Typology Theory and Its Implications for Translation Studies. ''Chinese Translators Journal'', vol.30.

[4]N. Zhao. (2014). Translation of Categorical Words in Chinese from the Perspective of Thinking Difference between China and the West, ''Journal of Anyang Normal University.''

[5]Nida, E A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J. Brilll.

[6]NORD C. (2002). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity—functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

[7]Pinkham Joan. (2000). ''The Translator's guide to Chinglish''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

[8]Reiss K. (1971). Text Types, ''Translation Types and Translation Assessment//Chesterman A. Readings in Translation Theory''. Finland: Oy Finn Lectura Ab.

[9]Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

[10]Vinay, J. P &J. Darbelnet. (2020). ''A Methodology for Translation''. Trans. by J.C. Sager &M. Hamel. In Venuti, L.(ed.).

[11]Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China.(2019).''The Journal of Human Rights''.

[12]VERMEER HANS. J. (1989). ''Skopos and Commission in Translational Action.'' ANDREW CHESTERMA. Readings in Translation. Helsinki: Oy Finn Leetura Ab.

[13]He Jiaying 何嘉莹, et al.(2020). "翻译目的论视角下英语新闻的编译策略——基于江苏某科技组织微信公众号平台和南方某高校外国语学院英文网站建设." [Translation Strategy Is Based on the Skopos Theory: The Construction of English News Website Based on the Official Account of WeChat, A Science And Technology Organization in Jiangsu, and the English Website of A Foreign Language College in Southern China.] 科技传播 Science And Technology Communication.

[14]Luo Mazhang 罗新璋.(1984). 翻译论集[Translation Volume]. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: Commercial Press.

[15]Ma Huijuan, Miao Ju 马会娟，苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论宣读[Reading of Contemporary Western Translation Theories].北京：外语研究与教学出版社 Beijing: Foreign Language Research And Teaching Press.

[16]Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of " Translation Strategies ", " Translation Methods " And " Translation Techniques "] 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal.

[17]Information Office of the State Council of the people's Republic of China 中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. (2019). "为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年" [Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China]. 人民日报 People’s Daily.

==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590 MTI==

<center>胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590</center>

===Abstract===

This paper is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects. In addtion, the current challenges should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.

===Key Words===

Translator’s subjectivity; Invisibility; Visibility.

===题目===

译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”

===摘要===

本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。

===关键词===

译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。

===Introduction===

The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, and both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their personal views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)

For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but the role of translators in translation activities has always been neglected. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that oriented toward target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

===Translator's Subjectivity===

Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention. On the one hand, the traditional translation view, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. "And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity" (Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.

As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until the 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment. "And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed"(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). "Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively" (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.

====1. Definition of Translator's Subjectivity====

According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”. (Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)

====2. Related Theories on Translator's Subjectivity====

In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since the 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.

The studies on translator’s subjectivity of some typical schools will be introduced as follows.

=====2.1 Polysystem Theory=====

This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that "elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems" (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. "And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school" (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).

=====2.2 Manipulation School=====

The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. "From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose" (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that "translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.

====3. Factors Influencing the Translator's Subjectivity====

The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

=====3.1 The historical background of translator=====

The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility. Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese.

Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

=====3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence=====

The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expressions. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.

=====3.3 Understanding of the original=====

In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes," A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets ". There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text.

Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator in China, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)

In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. Under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this context, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)

===The Influence of Translator's Invisibility and Visibility on Translator's Subjectivity===

In literary translation, the word "invisibility" refers to "the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion"; while "apparent" is put forward according to the opposite of "invisibility", which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, the fact is that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding.Translator should fully make use of it. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)

Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators. Specifically, they can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's "appearance".(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)

1. Translator's invisibility

The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.

According to the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve "transparency" and "invisibility". The "transparency" of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the "invisibility" refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text. "The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis." (Xu Jun, 2003).

In a word, "faithfulness" and "equivalence" should be achieved in translation. The criterion of "faithfulness" also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity. The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be "invisible", but in essence, this "invisibility" is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)

2. Translator's visibility

In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to "resist" and adopt poor translation. "Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added." (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the "resistance" translation strategy to retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation. In this context, the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator. (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

===The Challenge of Translator's Subjectivity===

As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.

1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity

With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time.

Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play.

But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity

In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood.

The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

From this point of view, professionalization also prose challenges on the translator's subjectivity. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative

The translator's "invisibility" and "manifestation" are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. "Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective "uncertainty" needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed " (Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010).

However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of "overcorrection". In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology in the historical background of the translator. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)

When there is a conflict the ideology between the translator and the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)

===Conclusion===

Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.

Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to "invisibility" and "manifestation" in contemporary literary translation, we should know "invisibility" when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of "invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible", we can better understand the meaning of "invisibility" of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of "manifestation" when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of "invisible" or "explicit" in translation is worth considering.

==='''References'''===

Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979). "Polysystem Theory". Poetics Today (1) 287.

Hermans, Theo. (1985). "The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation". London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.

Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017). 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构 [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译 Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.

Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019). 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's "invisibility" and "manifestation" in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example]. 智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.

Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰. (2014). 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性 [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.

Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011). 论译者的“隐形”和“显形” [On the translator's "invisibility" and "visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.

Shufen Huang. (2019). “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100.

Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020). 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性 [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.

ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨. (2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起 [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.

Zhiwei Gu. (2017). "On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity", English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing Japanese Language and Literature==

<center>马智星 Ma Zhixing 202020080625</center>

===Abstract===
Throughout the history of western translation, as the subject of translation, the change of translator's identity reveals a process from "invisibility" to "appearance". In different historical periods, different translators have never stopped discussing the "invisibility" and "appearance" of translators. From the perspective of historical development, this paper examines the different evolution of Lefevere's operation theory and Venuti's invisible translation theory in the western translation history, so as to analyze the change of the translator's identity and discuss the translator's subjectivity.

===Key Words===
translator's view;translation behavior;invisibility;

===摘要===
纵观西方翻译史，作为翻译主体的译者，其身份的变化彰显了一个由“隐身”到“现身”的过程。不同历史时期，不同翻译家们对于译者的“隐身”和“现身”的讨论，从未停止。本文从历史发展的角度，考察西方翻译史中勒菲弗尔的操作论和韦努迪的译者隐身翻译理论的不同演变，以此分析译者身份的变化，从而对译者的主体性进行探讨。

===关键词===
翻译观；译者行为；隐形

===Ⅰ.Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory===
In the 1980s, culture, rather than text, emerged as the Unit of translation, bringing cultural studies into a new stage of translation theory: Cultural Theory of translation. This change is called the "cultural turn" in the field of translation studies. Andrea, a representative of the Cultural School of Translation Studies, is an important theoretical figure in the field of contemporary Western Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. The translation studies school originally originated in Europe, and Lefevere's profound insight enriched and advanced the further development of this theory in the United States and the world.

Lefevere's manipulation theory is a well-known theory in the Cultural School of Translation Studies. Lefevere regards translation as a rewriting of the original and a manipulation of the original, which breaks the traditional thinking of evaluating translation with the original as the criterion. Lefevere's manipulation theory generally refers to the process of translation, adaptation, compilation, criticism and editing of literary works. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and a form of creating another text image Literary criticism, biography, film, drama, parody, reader's guide, compilation of history, criticism and editing are all rewriting of the text, which are all forms of creating another text image. In other words, translation creates the literary and cultural images of the original text, the original author, and the original text. And all rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics.(Bassnett & Lefevere, 1990:8 )

Lefevere studies translation in a broad sociocultural context, emphasizing the role of ideology, mainstream poetics and culture. Translation is bound to serve certain ideology and poetics. In his view, "rewriting" is "manipulating" . It can "manipulate" literature and "culture" , the positive aspect of which is to help the evolution of literature and society through the introduction of new concepts, new literary genres and new means of expression. The rewriting of different historical periods should be controlled by ideology and mainstream poetics, and finally be related to power and become a means to serve it. The three elements of Lefevere's manipulation theory are set out in translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. In his opinion, translation can not truly reflect the original work, mainly because it is always manipulated by three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.

'''1.Ideological'''

ideology refers to a system of ideas that reflects the interests and requirements of a particular economic form, class or social group. Its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. . Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communicative activity, will inevitably be affected by ideology. Lefevere points out that ideology has a great influence on translation, which exerts a subtle influence on the translator's thinking and translation activities. Ideology influences the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Under the control of ideology, the translator may add, delete or change the original text at will, making the translation serve his own political purposes.
At the same time, different translators will form their own ideology because of their different personal experience, educational level, social and cultural environment, etc. . If a translated work wants to enter into the social and cultural system of the target language, it is bound to be restricted by the corresponding social and ideological standards. If the translation violates or offends ideological taboos, it will be difficult to spread smoothly in the target language culture, and may even be banned. Through the analysis of famous translators such as Lin Shu's works, we can clearly feel that it was controlled and influenced by the ideology and poetics of Chinese society at that time. Ideological manipulation of translation can be reflected in the influence on the purpose of translated novels, the choice of translated texts and the application of translation strategies.-

'''2.Poetics'''

Poetics is a theory about poetry and the study of poetry and its techniques. It is also a theory about literature and art. The formation of poetics occurs in a certain period, which is often a choice for some types of practice at that time, while excluding other types. According to Lefevere, the methods of translation adopted by translators are carried out under the restriction of certain poetic factors. The study of poetics is as small as a word, as large as a sentence, the style of the whole text and the translation strategies. Translation greatly influences the interpenetration of different literary systems, not only by successfully introducing the image of a writer or a work into another literary system, but also in the introduction of new literary means into a certain poetics.

In lefevere's opinion, as the manipulator of translation, such rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because in the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. The rewriting of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriter works. In order to conform to the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the work is rewritten and to be accepted by as many readers as possible, the rewriter often makes some adjustments to the original work. Some masterpieces have also been dealt with to varying degrees so that they can be adapted to the cultural background of different social and historical conditions.

In the development of translation theory, more and more attention has been paid to the indispensability of poetics in translation. Poetics is concerned with what literature should or could be, and has two components, "One is a list of literary techniques, genres, themes, typical characters and situations, and symbols; the other is an idea of what role literature plays or should play in the overall social system. " To a certain extent, the poetic factors also determine the social role that the translation will play and the degree of its influence. The aesthetic sense of poetry in a work will disappear if the significance is emphasized but the poetic factors and the literary brilliance are ignored.

'''3.The Power of Patronage'''

Lefevere regards literary translation and other forms of rewriting as one of the social systems. This literary system has two controlling factors, one is the internal factor of the literary system, which is made up of various professionals such as critics, critics, teachers and translators The other is a patron who works outside the system and is "generally more interested in the ideology of literature than in the poetics of Literature" , "The powers (people or institutions) that promote or discourage literary reading, writing or rewriting, such as religious groups, classes, government departments, publishing houses, mass media organizations, can also be personal forces" (Lefevere, 1992:17)

In Lefevere's theory of the three elements, the most important factor is the power of the sponsor, who is always in charge of the whole process of translation. Translation itself is not an isolated act, but closely related to political, social and economic factors. Most translators translate well and safely within the space allowed by the social and political authority of their times. As "any force that may contribute to the production and dissemination of literary works and may hinder, prohibit and destroy literary works" (Chen Dehong, Zhang Nanfeng, 2000:176) , the power of patron can play a role through ideology, economic interests and social status.

Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the trend of translation activities, the development of translated literature and the social status of translators. For example, Yan Fu, as a translator and thinker, although he had his own clear goals and ideas in selecting translation materials, he was also an official appointed by the Qing government, therefore, his selection of translation materials is also controlled by the ideology of the sponsors. There is also a series of translations, translated or edited by Lin Yutang, that are closely related to the requests and suggestions of his patrons, the Pearl Buck and her husband.Lefevere's manipulation theory has opened up a new perspective for translation studies, which has shifted researchers'attention from the internal factors of the text to the external factors of the text, such as ideology, poetics and the power of patronage, this is of great significance to translation studies. Manipulation theory broadens the horizon of translation studies from text to culture. In recent years, with the rise of the Cultural School of Translation, the Study of translation from the perspective of the three elements of manipulation theory has become increasingly attractive.

=== Ⅱ. Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility===

'''2.1the Translator's Invisibility'''

Lawrence Venuti, an Italian American scholar, is an important representative and advocate of deconstructive translation theory. His translation thoughts are mainly concentrated in his monograph translator's invisibility published in 1995, his deconstructive translation essays rethinking and translation scandal.n his monograph the translator's invisibility, Venuti puts forward the term "invisibility", which is used to describe the status of translators in ontemporary British and American translation circles. He pointed out that the "invisibility" of the translation makes the reader unable to see the translator, as if he were reading the original rather than the translation.

There are two reasons why the translator is actually "invisible". First of all, translators themselves tend to translate into "fluent" English. Secondly, the way the target readers read the translated text. Whether it is prose, poetry, fiction or other types of subjects, most people accept that the ranslation is fluent in reading, without any unique language or style. It seems that the translation has reflected the author's substantive significance, and the translation seems to be not the translation but the original work.However, the premise of translation is that different languages and cultures are different and there is no absolute equivalence between them. This fluent translation method not only ignores the relationship between the author and the translator, the source text and the target text, obliterates the translator's interpretation, due status and efforts, but also conceals the differences between languages and cultures.

Therefore, Venuti puts forward the "resistance" translation strategy and advocates the translator to show his form. This kind of resistance is the courage to admit the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language and culture, and to show such differences, and even deviate from the original text. The translator should deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text to avoid the smooth translation, so that readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator.

The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.

'''2.2 Foreignization -- the Core of Venuti's Translation Thought''''

In 1813, Schleiermacher pointed out in his speech on different translation methods: "either the translator should keep the author at home and let the reader approach the author as much as possible, or the translator should keep the reader at ease and let the author approach the reader as much as possible." The former shows the language and cultural differences in foreign texts and sends readers abroad, which belongs to foreignization translation; the latter, centering on nationalism, naturalizes foreign values into the target culture and invites the original author to China.

Different from Schleiermacher, Venuti believes that foreignization translation can "suppress the violence of racial center in translation" and suppress the "violent" domestication of translation cultural values in English speaking countries. Therefore, foreignization translation is also known as resistance translation, which means that the translator highlights the foreign identity of the foreign text in the translation works by adopting non fluent translation techniques, and protects the original text from the control of the cultural ideology of the target language, so that he is no longer the "implicit person" of translation. Through the selection of foreign texts and foreignization translation, it challenges the cultural hegemony of English speaking countries and achieves the goal of cultural exchange.

'''2.3The Progress of Foreignization Translation Theory'''

Venuti considers translation in the context of society and culture and criticizes the way in which foreign literature is assimilated into the target language by domestication. He proposed and advocated foreignization translation strategy or "resistance strategy", emphasizing that the translation should maintain the flavor of the foreign language text and let readers feel the exotic customs. This kind of translation strategy is not only helpful for the translator to "manifest" in translation, but also more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement in the context of world cultural integration.

Contrary to the traditional view, hold that foreignization translation is a kind of recreation, and there is no strict boundary between creation, translation and research. The original is not self-made, but the author uses the long-standing cultural materials, after reorganization, according to some values. Different cultural places are the places for readers to understand. Therefore, Venuti believes that translation should not deny the necessity of "reserving differences" under the pretext of "seeking common ground". He believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness, on the contrary, it is "the misuse of faithfulness". It will not only lose some characteristics of the original language, but also add new things. As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed..

'''2.4The Limitations of Foreignization Translation Theory'''

Translation is an activity of cross language and cultural communication, but the premise that can not be ignored is that the source language and the target language are different in ideology, values, habitual expression, logical thinking and so on. Venuti's foreignization strategy is to resist cultural hegemony when translating a weak culture into a strong one. For the weak culture and the marginalized and excluded culture, when they are translated into the strong culture by means of foreignization, the strategy is undoubtedly the best way to resist the strong culture and values and express ideas and culture. However, when a strong culture is translated into a weak culture in the same way, foreignization translation is likely to play a role in boosting the flames. In the face of superior British and American cultures, foreignized translation may subvert the norms of the target language, destroy the target language and the target language culture, or become the accomplice of cultural colonialists inadvertently.

Although foreignization translation reflects the characteristics of the source language and has positive significance for cultural communication, it imposes the language system and cultural phenomena in the source language on the target readers. For ordinary readers, without familiar language expression and the same cultural knowledge background, reading foreignization translation of foreign text will not only feel that the translation is obscure and difficult to understand, but also will gradually alienate or even exclude the foreign text. In this way, foreign texts will not be accepted by the public and can only be shelved.

Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.

The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.

==='''Ⅲ.My Thought of "Visibility"&"Invisibility" in Translation Behavior'''===
Venuti believes that in order to translate a good work, the translator must eliminate his sense of racial and cultural superiority, and try to retain the
language style of the original text, so that the target language readers can be exposed to the original foreign language and culture, so as to promote the language and cultural exchange between countries. His foreignization translation strategy can make readers better understand foreign language characteristics, foreign culture, local customs, traditional customs and aesthetic habits.

By reading foreign versions, readers can learn different ways of thinking and language expression, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their own language and cultural knowledge. With the continuous development and evolution of language, foreignization translation plays an important role in promoting cultural exchange and absorbing vocabulary and language structure from different countries. It is precisely because of foreignization translation that many foreign words, such as sofa, salon, clone, generation gap, hot spot and so on, are often used in newspapers, magazines and literary works, which greatly enriches our language and culture. And the words developed from Chinese, such as kowtow, Taichi and kungfu, also have a firm foothold in English dictionaries. Under the background of world cultural integration, this kind of translation strategy is more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement.

The purpose of vernuti's foreignization translation is to pursue cultural diversity. This strategy can effectively resist the interference and tampering of British and American cultures on the inequality of weak cultures, so as to curb ethnocentrism and cultural hegemony. At the same time, he claims that the translator's "manifestation" is of positive significance to the affirmation of the translator's value and to the improvement of the translator's status.
However, foreignization translation is not the best way to be universally accepted, and there are also limitations. Foreignization translation requires too much knowledge of readers and is not suitable for translating non literary texts. The strategy adopted in translation plays an important role in the translation, which determines what kind of translation will be produced in the end. Domestication translation and foreignization translation have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they play an irreplaceable role in each other. Therefore, in practice, no matter what translation strategy the translator chooses, he should consider the differences between readers' receptivity, text type and ideology, and strive to find a balance between different languages and cultures to achieve the best effect of equal communication.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===
Throughout the history of western translation, we find that, in addition to the special historical period, the translator has been gradually pushed from behind the scenes to the front of the screen. The traditional translation theory holds that translators must abide by the principle of faithfulness, and there is only one correct translation. In this way, translators begin to become "invisible people". People ignore that translators are independent individuals in social life and have different understanding of the world, just like everyone else. Translation is a subjective activity. Translators play an important role in intercultural communication in the process of translation. Therefore, we should consider the translator's subjectivity in translation studies.

===Reference===

Chen, Fukang.[陈福康].(1992).中国译学理论史稿[M].上海外语教育出版社.(4):28-31

Guo,Jianzhong.[郭建中].(2000).当代美国翻译理论[C].湖北教育出版社.(6):31-22

Shi,Jianwei.[施建伟].(1999).林语堂传[M].十月文艺出版社.(8):23-24.

Chen,Dehong/Zhang,nanfeng.[陈德鸿,张南峰].(2000)西方翻译理论精选[M].香港城市大学出版社.(3)25-21

Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M]. Pinter Publishers.(3)26-13

Lefevere,Andre.Translation,(1992a).Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M]. Routledge.（6）28-4

==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin 202070080591 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.

===Key words===
business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation

===摘要===

随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。

===关键词===

商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译

===Introduction===

Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)

Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also rising, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract. (Jin Di 1998，115)

This paper mainly includes three chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.
The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)

The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.
The third chapter is the main part of the article, namely the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===

This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively.

This chapter first introduces the definition and categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====

As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)

As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been highly valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for avoiding trade frictions effectively. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)

However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. Since the oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====
Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 26)

Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contract, processing contract, foreign labor contract, and agency agreement, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 26)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)

Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====

English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)

English business contract style is solemn with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====

As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)

As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. For the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)

First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaic words most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)

In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. Strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)

Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. And his is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)

However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the divergences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)

Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledges and terminologies. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====

Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc.
The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)

Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc.
The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. And they are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed at the beginning, the middle or the end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)

In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, while interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)

Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the behavior agent and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====

The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure. In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)

The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly revealed in textual cohesion and textual structure. In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repeating words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)

The discourse structure of Chinese is basically the same with that of English business contracts, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)

This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===

This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.

This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principles to business contract translation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====

Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 )

Nida first proposed the “dynamic equivalence” theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely “formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 )--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)

Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translationese. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.

After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced “dynamic equivalence” with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of “function”.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)

On the question of which level of equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)

In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into “maximum functional equivalence” and “minimum functional equivalence” since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called “maximum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while “minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====

Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)

At abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86)
Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)

Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86)
Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on 'domestication' and 'foreignization' from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)

At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward “equivalence theory” on the basis of “functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of “functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using “functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====

At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)

At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the original contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)

Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. All of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===

This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)

This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter discusses the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====

Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)

Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In specific translation processes, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====

The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)

The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledges and terminologies, which are big obstacles for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1:“The balance 80% (Eighty percent) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties.”

译文：“合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360天予以支付。”

Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression. (Liao Ying 2005, 23)

Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”

译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”

In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 34)

Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only).”

译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”

In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained. (Liao Ying 2005, 43)

=====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====

Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)

Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contracts are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.”

译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”

In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it. (Liao Ying 2005, 50)

Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows:

译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。

In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 53)

Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.

译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。

In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 63)

=====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====

“Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)

“Functional Equivalence” emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer.

译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。

Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.”

译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”

In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style. (Miao Xipu 2011, 113)

=====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====

English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)

English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words' meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”

译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”

In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 83)

Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.

译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。

In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)

====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====

Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)

Cliches are commonly used in official documents and usually have fixed translation methods. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====

There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)

There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginnings and ends of them. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”

译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”

Example2: This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument.

译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。

Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 140)

=====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====

Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)

Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively show the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below:

译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同：

Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion.

译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。

From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example. (Miao Xipu 2011, 158)

=====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====

Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)

Long sentences usuallly contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product.

译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。

This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. (Miao Xipu 2011, 190)

Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld.

译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。

This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents. (Miao Xipu 2011, 192)

Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion.

译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。

This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. (Liao Ying 2005, 103)

====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====

The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)

A text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====

Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)

Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, strongly reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example:
Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term.

译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。

Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence. (Liao Ying 2005, 213)

=====3.3.2 Text Format=====

As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)

As a kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Contract No: ××××××

Date: Aug. ××,2013

The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××)

Legal Address: ××××××

Representative: ××××××

Tel/Fax: ××××××

The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××)

Legal Address: ×××××

Representative: ××××××

Tel/Fax: ××××××

译文：合同编号：××××××

日期：2013年8月×号

买方：××××××（以下简称××××）

注册地址：××××××

代表人：××××××

电话/传真：××××××

卖方：××××××（以下简称××××）

注册地址：××××××

代表人：××××××

电话/传真：××××××

Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)

Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of translation and original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:
In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:
In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of language expression in translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

As to language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research. (JIn Di 1998, 310)

Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research should be broadened in the future. (JIn Di 1998, 310)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie 202070080626 MTI英语笔译==

===Abstract===
In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.

===Key words===
Identity of translator, Translation activities, Roles of today’s translator

===题目===
论翻译活动中译者的身份

===摘要===
翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。

===关键词===
译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色

===Introduction===
It is vital for translators to play roles well in the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and much attention should be paid to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.

===1.The Importance and Necessity of valuing the issue of translator's identity===
Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operations, cultural characteristics, artistic creations, aesthetic standards, and humanistic characters. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）

The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. The translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new look, but also decide which new look to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated works. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.（Zhong and Zhou, 2006）

===2.Different Kinds of Roles Translators Have played in History===
====2.1 The Identity of Translator Under the Source Language Centralism====
Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meaning and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.

=====2.1.1 Translator as a Servant=====
There are certain common cognition and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the "servant role" both in the East and the West.

John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the "slave" can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）

American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.

Yang Jiang also said in her book ''Experience of Failures-Trial Translation'' "At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation." (Jin and Huang, 2019)

The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so the translator is like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restore the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings to meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations.

Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public to translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of "seeing things but not people". Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.

=====2.1.2 Translator as An Invisible Person=====
One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's "invisibility" and "visibility" have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both "invisibility" or "visibility" are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.

Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph ''The Translators Invisibility'' A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. And the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)

Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and stated in the article ''The Translation of Lin Shu'' that "The highest standard of literary translation is 'sublimation'." In translation, if you can not only not show the traces of being blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it will meet requirements of "sublimation". In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as "the transmigration of souls" of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）

The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph ''Les Belles Infideles'' "The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can't even feel its existence."

The "invisible" identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the "transparency" of the translation and the "invisibility" of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's "invisibility" has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）

=====2.1.3 Translator as a Painter=====
Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting. In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement, “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.

====2.2The Identity of Translator Under the Translator Centralism====
In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasized the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators.

=====2.2.1 Translator as a Manipulator=====
The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put "loyalty" and "faithfulness" in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text.

=====2.2.2 Translator as a Writer=====
Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power.

Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value. They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.

=====2.2.3 Translator as a Conqueror=====
As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror.

=====2.2.4 The Translator's "Independent" Status=====
Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.

=====2.2.5 Translator as a Creative Rebel=====
The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange.（Escarpit, 1987）On the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.

=====2.2.6 Translator as a Language Quality Controller(Li and He, 2018)=====
In recent years, with the development of the world economy and internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.

===3.The Features of the Changes of Translator’s Identity and Its Complexity===
====3.1 The Identity of Translators Changed from Invisible to Visible, from Subordinate to Dominant, from Author-centered to Translator-centered. ====
At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of "invisible man", "slave", "servant" and "painter". The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized.

Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as "manipulator", "writer", "creative rebel", "conqueror “and so on.

Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as "language quality controller", "learners of new technology and new knowledge" and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity.

Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles". On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.

====3.2 The Identity and Status of Translators are Closely connected with the Era ====
Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan "women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language" emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of "women" in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals.

====3.3 Complexity of Translation Activities and the Identity of Translators====
In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because translators different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as "learner of new knowledge and new technology", "selector of the style", and "controller of language quality". Translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.

===4. The Roles of Today’s Translators===
====4.1 Dancers in Shackles. ====
Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, a servant or a master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles. The translator should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.

====4.2 Megaphones of Real Problems.====
Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.

====4.3 Learners who Keep up With the Time.====
Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.

====4.4 Promoters of Cultural Communication.====
Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.

===Conclusion===
The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.

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==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang 202070080635 Interpretation英语口译==
<center>顾东方 Gu Dongfang </center>

===Abstract===
In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization .

In The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.
===Key words===
domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies

===摘要===
在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。

===关键词===
归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略

=== Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===
Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.

Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author". In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.（Wang Ying 2007）

===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===
Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms "literal translation" and "free translation" are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be "expressive" and "elegant".

Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored.

Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 06:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression.

Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, "A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original". Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu.

Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original.

Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language.

There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice.

Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.(Wang Ying 2007)

===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===

===The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===
The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.

At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the translation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.

The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of "domestication". He said: "The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is." This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of "foreignization" .

In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the "invisibility" of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.(Liu Ping 2008)

===Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===
The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.

At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers.

The translator should not focus on how to be "faithful to the original", but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.
With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was "I'd rather be faithful than smooth", and advocated "preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible" and "the need for exoticism".

After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, "foreignization" has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that "Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary".(Liu Ping 2019)

===Domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===

====The relationship between culture and language====

In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system.

The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context.

Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.（Wang Hongwei 2002）

==== Translatability and untranslatability of cultures====
On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that "all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces.

In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other." It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, "Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication." Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.

On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase "客上天然居，居然天客" is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.(Wang Hongwei 2007)

====Factors influencing cultural translation strategies====

=====Motives and objectives of translation=====

Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods

=====Text type=====

Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed.

The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term "documentary translation" is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the "strength" and "clarity" of the message. " in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language.

Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve "strength" and "clarity". Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written.

Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible.

This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.(Wang Hongwei2007)

=====Acceptance by readers=====
In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader.

This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that "Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly."(Wang Hongwei2007)

===Cultural Schools of Translation===--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of "Cultural Turn of Translation", which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture.

In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong "revolutionary" element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be "subversive" to the previous translation theories.

This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity.

Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people.

For example, Lv Jun proposes that "translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.(Wang Hongwei2007)

====Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation====
标题大写--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: "The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of "accuracy", "readability" and "acceptability". (Zhou Yongkun 2019)

例一：常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。

Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.

“螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means "following the majority of people to speak or act". A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero" is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning "only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines". Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: "Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore", which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn.

The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit

例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。

There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.

Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, "Xishi" and "Chanjuan", to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate "Xishi" and "Chanjuan", nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties.

Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.(Zhou Yongkun 2019)

In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.

5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation
注意标题格式--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion.

With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms "internet", "gene", "blue print", "blue print" and "blue print" are used to refer to the "Internet", "gene", "blue print" and "blue print". "Time is money", "ivory tower", "washroom".... (crocodile tears), "black humor" , and "qi gong" ), "taijiquan" , "kong fu" , "typhon”

These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.
（Wang Ying 2007）
例一.打破铁饭碗

Break the”iron rice bowl”

"Iron rice bowl" is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare "rice bowl" to an occupation, while "iron rice bowl" refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of "domestication", but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.

例二.下海

A.to jump into the sea of business

B.To turn professional

In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.

Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the "cold shoulder"? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.

例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”

A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”

B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”

Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, "God" is replaced by "Heavenly Father," which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture.

However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.

The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.（Wang Ying 2007）

===Conclusion===
With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of "foreign" translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of "cultural globalization".

It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to "alienation" translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts. (Xiong Bing 2003)

===Reference===
Wang Ying王瑛. "跨文化翻译中的归化和异化." 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.

Zhou Yongkun周永堃. "归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例." 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.

Wang Hongwei王红卫. "跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略." 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.

Xiong Bing熊兵. "文化交流翻译的归化与异化." 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.

Liu Ping刘苹. "中国翻译史上的归化和异化." 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.

no numbers, attention to the detailed request on the bottom of the home page--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of "Political Equivalence" 202070080585 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
With the development of globalization, the political exchanges among countries is more frequent, and the translation of political discourse has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. The translation of political discourse is challenging, not only because it is related to important issues such as the relationship between countries, national status and political attitudes, but also because political vocabulary is developmental and new words are constantly coming into the political vocabulary, and some political words will add new connotations with the development of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the "Political Equivalence" based on Eugene Nida's "Functional Equivalence" theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of "political", "dynamic" and "balanced". On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of "Political Equivalence".

===Key words===
political equivalence; Chinese political discourse; translation strategies

===摘要===
随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。

===关键词===
政治等效; 中国政治话语; 翻译策略

===1. Introduction of Background===

Political discourse is a vehicle of communication or one kind of discourse behaviors used to articulate a country's foreign policy, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including both oral and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).

===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===

This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to promote the political communication between countries and show the country's political attitudes, theories and policies to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only an obligatory task for translators, but also of great significance to the development of translation studies.

===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===

The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it faithfully to the target language. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are quite few equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. In particular, Chinese political discourse is often presented metaphorically which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of the times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.

===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===

(1)The proposal and connotation of the "political equivalence" standard

In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term "韬光养晦" which led to the propaganda "China threat theory". Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of "political equivalence" for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political ideas of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).

In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the "political equivalence" translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic. Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to maintain a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on any one of them, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. As political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations.(Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35)

In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of "political equivalence + aesthetic representation" on the basis of the translation standard of "political equivalence" (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. In addition to meeting the requirements of "political equivalence" mentioned above, this standard also requires to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account.

In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of "political equivalence + image representation" based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing "image reproduction" and "aesthetic reproduction" is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text.

In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic events in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the "political equivalence" standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize "political equivalence"(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).

(2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida

"Firstly, the 'equivalence' emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or the writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the concept of 'dynamic' proposed by Nida in 'functional equivalence' theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience "(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).

In a word, the translation standard of "political equivalence" is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, providing theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.

===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===

First of all, translators should grasp not only the meaning of the original text, but also the political intention of the speaker or the writer, because sometimes the literal meaning of Chinese words in the political discourse cannot fully represent the real intention of the speaker or the writer.What translators should do is to learn more about the related background knowledge before translating and keep pace with the worldwide current events in daily life, and choose the proper translation strategies according to specific situations to make the translation be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or the writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of "political equivalence".(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Secondly, translators should treat both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaking country and the receiving country. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's political thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country, which requires the proper selection and use of the target language. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve "political equivalence" and even cause political events.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Thirdly, translators should know well about the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies.As we all know, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, the corresponding words in English and Chinese may have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Fourthly, translators should also know well about the differences between the two languages.In English, there are many grammatical rules different from from those of Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. If translators deal with these special expressions improperly, these expressions will hinder the realization of the "political equivalence" in translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Fifthly, to achieve "political equivalence" in translating political discourse, translation strategies should not be single, rigid but flexible and diversified. In addition, the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text and the original or even several extended connotations of the words in it,instead,translators should recognize the real connotations of the political terms according to the context and different occasions. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or the writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

lastly, translators should ensure the political correctness in the translation of political discourse using their knowledge reserves. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the "minefields" of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to "translation storm" and affect the "political equivalence" of translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

===6. Translation Strategies under The Standard of Political Equivalence===

Under the guidance of the standard of "political equivalence", the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.

(1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse

Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in "现代化" and "城镇化", so are abbreviations like "‘十四五’规划", "四个自信", etc., and four-character phrases such as "和平共处", "和而不同", etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as "‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打", among which "老虎(tiger)" and "苍蝇(flies)" refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. Therefore, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the "political equivalence"standard.

(2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)

① supplement

The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. When Chinese political terms are translated for foreigners, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.

The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplementing relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-2025) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplementing detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”

②Omission

English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are quite few equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being faithful to the original text.

The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasis, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available without changing the meaning. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.

(3) Translation strategies for metaphor

Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).

Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):

① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities

Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.

For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as "Long March of the new era". The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and its people. On the one hand, the literal translation of "The Long March" retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.

② Substitution of the metaphorical entities

After all, the differences between languages far outweigh the similarities, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text by using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead the reader. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.

For example, Foreign Ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And the word“scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers will not understand it.

③literal translation+explanation

In some other cases, where either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation + explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only maintains the cultural characteristics of the source language while enabling English readers to be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.

For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by the Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.

④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly

Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may encounter the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first ipriority to convey the correct political implication.

For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Since rice is the staple food in most parts of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down-to-earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of "rice bag" or "vegetable basket" without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.

===7. Conclusion===

From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, it can be seen that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of "political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic.

The translation of political discourse has its unique characteristics and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful in choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.

===8. References===

楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.

吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of "political equivalence"][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.

龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究["Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence" : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.

杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of "Political Equivalence" in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea "韬光养晦" as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.

杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of "Political Equivalence"-- Taking the translation of "韬光养晦" as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.

杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: "Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction" -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.

杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of "Political Equivalence plus"][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.

杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between "political equivalence" and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to "One Belt And One Road" period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.

==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu 202020080666 俄语语言文学==

<center>张虎 Zhang Hu 202020080666</center>

===Abstract===

Russian proverbs are produced under the specific cultural background and have rich cultural connotations. They are an important part of Russian language and culture. However, there are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese, and the language forms of Russian and Chinese proverbs have their own characteristics. This chapter attempts to classify Russian proverbs and explore the translation methods and Strategies of Russian proverbs.(This chapter only discusses the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs and the English translation of proverbs is for reference only.)

===Key words===
Russian proverb，classification，Chinese translation methods，translation strategies

===题目===
俄语谚语的分类、汉译方法及策略

===摘要===
俄语谚语于特定的文化背景下产生，具有丰富的文化内涵，是俄语语言文化的重要组成部分。而俄汉两族文化差异较大，俄汉谚语语言形式各具特色，俄语谚语的翻译问题成为一个难题。本文试对俄语谚语进行分类，探究俄语谚语的翻译方法及翻译策略。

===关键词===
俄语谚语；分类；汉译方法；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===
Proverbs are a genre of folk literature（Wang Yanrong 2013,114) , and they are simple, popular and meaningful fixed sentences commonly used by the people. Generally speaking, proverbs are rhythmic in form, including various life phenomena in content, rich in educational significance, vividly reflecting the cultural connotations and characteristics of a nation, and are the result of wisdom of the broad masses of people and the essence of a national language（Zhou Changyu 2006,5). Therefore, understanding proverbs is an effective way to understand a nation. Proverbs of different nationalities have their own characteristics. The translation of proverbs among different nationalities has become an important issue in translation studies. This chapter attempts to explore the translation methods and principles of Russian proverbs.

===2.Classification of Russian proverbs===
The formation of Russian proverbs is inseparable from the production, life, customs, religion, culture and history of the nation, and has a distinctive national style. The Russian and Chinese languages belong to different language systems, and there is a big difference in the way of expression. In order to fully understand Russian proverbs and grasp the translation methods of Russian proverbs, this chapter first compares Russian and Chinese proverbs, and divides Russian proverbs into three categories based on the degree of consistency between Russian and Chinese proverbs, namely “complete consistency” and “partial consistency” and “complete inconsistency”（Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

====2.1 Complete consistency====

"Complete consistency" means that Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs are completely consistent in terms of thinking and figurative meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese that fully correspond to them. The number of such proverbs is relatively small, but they reflect the cultural commonality between the Russian and Chinese languages, indicating that the two peoples are similar in cognitive mode, thinking mode and personality characteristics between the two countries(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

For example, there is an ancient Chinese proverb in the Biography of Zhao Chongguo, The History of the Former Han Dynasty in ancient my country “百闻不如一见.” The meaning of this sentence is “it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times,” which expresses that hearing more is not as reliable as seeing it. And there is a widely used proverb in Russian “Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать.(Jia Shufen 1996,146)” They are completely consistent and show that the people of the Russian and Han ethnic groups have the same understanding of the importance of “seeing with their own eyes.”

Another example is “Из искры возгорится пламя” in Russian. It was first written by Decembrists, famous Russian poet, A. I. Odoevsky(А. И. Одоевский) in reply to Pushkin’s support of Decembrists’ revolution, and was later written by Lenin. The application in Iskra is well known and circulated. The Chinese counterpart “星星之火, 可以燎原(A single spark can start a prairie fire)” is widely known and become a proverb because of Mao Zedong's articles(Chen Ying 2000,89).

Similarly, "Беда не приходит одна." and "祸不单行(Misfortune never come alone)(Jia Shufen 1996,6)", "Сытый голотного не разумеет." and "饱汉不知饿汉饥(Fatty people do not know hungry people are hungry)(Jia Shufen 1996,378)", "Близкий сосед лучше дальней родни." and "distant relatives are not as good as neighbors", “Одно дерево - не роща, одна птица - нестая” and "孤树不成林，孤鸟不成群(A single tree does not form forests, a lone bird does not form flocks)(Wang Jinhua,Zhang Li 2006,76)", etc., are completely consistent in image and meaning.

====2.2 Partial consistency====
"Partial consistency" means that Russian proverbs are the same or similar in thinking, cultural image or meaning to Chinese proverbs. Such Russian proverbs can find corresponding or related proverbs in Chinese to a certain extent. The large number of such proverbs reflects the differences in the understanding of different things and phenomena between nations(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

For example, the Russian proverb "Расти как грибы после дождя" means "grow like mushrooms after rain", which means that things develop rapidly. Due to factors such as geographical location and natural environment, Russia is rich in mushrooms, and mushrooms grow rapidly after rain in Russia. In the same way, our country's "雨后春笋(bamboo shoots in spring)" have also grown rapidly, becoming a proverb that expresses the rapid development and emergence of things(Chen Ying 2000,90). This pair of Russian and Chinese proverbs uses the same thinking mode and different cultural images to express the same meaning.

Another example is the Russian proverb "Первый блин комом." It means that the first time you make a cake, you will always make a dough, which means that the first attempt is always easy to fail. The "блин" in the proverb is the unique Russian food "Russian pancake", which reflects the distinctive national characteristics. In Chinese, the proverb "三脚难踢，开锣的戏难唱(It's hard to kick the first three feet, and it's hard to sing the gongs)" uses images such as "三脚(three feet)" and "开锣的戏(plays with gongs)" to express that things are difficult at the beginning of attempts, and that "万事开头难(everything is difficult at first)" meaning. The two are very similar in their embodied meanings.
Some other examples included in this category are:

(1)Два медведя в одной берлоте неуживутся. 一个洞穴中不会住两只熊(Two bears in one berlot won't get along)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).

(2)И Москва несразу строилась. 莫斯科不是一下就建成的(And Moscow was not built immediately)(Chen Ying 2000,89).

(3)Гром не грянет, мужик не перекрестится. 不打雷，农夫不祷告(Thunder won't strike, the man won't cross)(Yang Min 2017, 202).

(4)Скарть со стола, и дружба сплыла.桌布一撤，友谊全无 (Scrap off the table and friendship floated away)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).

These Russian proverbs correspond to the Chinese "一山不容二虎(The mountain cannot accommodate two tigers)", "一口吃不成个胖子(You can't make a fat man with one bite)(Chen Ying 2000,90)", "临时抱佛脚(Temporary holding a Buddha's feet)", and "人走茶凉(No sooner has the person gone away than the tea cools down)(Lei Yumei 2014,114)". These sets of corresponding Russian and Chinese proverbs have different cultural images, but the meaning is the same.

====2.3 Complete inconsistency====
There are some Russian proverbs that have nothing to do with Chinese proverbs either in image or meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be classified as "completely inconsistent"(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114). The Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have their own unique national cultures. The differences in political economy, geographical environment, climate characteristics, vegetation, animals, historical allusions, living customs, religious beliefs, etc. have given birth to a series of ethnic proverbs(Yang Min 2017, 200).

For example, the literal translation of the Russian proverb "Дело-табак" is "事关烟草（it's about tobacco.）" What does it mean? It turned out that the boatmen on the Volga River used to hang tobacco bags around their necks to prevent the tobacco from getting wet. This sentence was used to remind people that the water depth is close to the neck. It has now been used to express "things are bad, the situation is not good". (Chen Ying 2000,90)

Another example is the Russian proverb "Хвалилась синица, что море зажжет." literally translated as "山雀吹嘘要把大海点燃(The tit boasted to light the sea)". This proverb comes from an allusion in Krylov’s fable: "The tit yelled everywhere that it was going to burn the sea. The news reached the animals' ears. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. "This proverb satirizes those who like to brag, but can't get things done. Such ethnic-specific proverbs are sometimes difficult to understand, and it is necessary to trace their roots to understand their meaning(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

These three types of Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs have different levels of consistency in content, and the degree of difficulty of understanding also varies. Therefore, in the translation process, it is necessary to select one or a combination of multiple translation methods for translation according to different proverb classifications to achieve the purpose of "prescribe the right medicine".

===3. Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs===
Chinese and foreign translation theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" to Qian Zhongshu's "Concept of Transcendence"; from Qu Qiubai's "Concept of Equivalence" to "Functional Equivalence" by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A•Nidar Or "dynamic equivalence". We can see that the central point in their proposition is that the translation should faithfully express the meaning of the original text and reflect the appearance of the original text(Sheng Yichao 2009,110).

On the basis of this important point of view, we analyze the classification of Russian proverbs and apply various methods comprehensively in order to obtain a more perfect translation. Specifically, there are the following methods: translation method, set translation method, literal translation method, free translation method, borrowed translation method, and added word and annotation method(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

====3.1 Equivalent translation(对译法)====
"Equivalent translation" is directly using Chinese proverbs corresponding to Russian proverbs for translation. When using this translation method, the information conveyed by the literal and image meanings of Russian and Chinese proverbs should be the same. This translation method can correctly convey the pragmatic information contained in the image of the original language, enhance the readability of the translation, while completely retaining the rhetorical color of the original language, so that readers can understand the original text most accurately(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

This translation method is applicable to the "completely consistent" Russian proverbs mentioned above. For the Russian proverbs listed in 1.1, the existing proverbs in Chinese proverbs can be directly used as translations, and for example:

(1)Век живи, век учись. 活到老,学到老。(Live and learn.)

(2)Капля камень точит. 滴水穿石。(Constant dripping wears away a stone.)

(3)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。(Strike while the iron is hot.) (Jia Shufen 1996,135)

====3.2 Corresponding and literal translation====

In the Translatology Dictionary , the translation method “corresponding” is interpreted as the mutual translation of synonymous idioms. If the content, form, and rhetoric color of the target language roughly match the target language, then it is possible to adopt this method(Fang Mengzhi 2003,111). If the images and metaphors are the same or similar, this translation method is more appropriate; while the literal translation method is based on the form of the original text, which retains the metaphor, image and national characteristics of Russian proverbs. These two methods can be used simultaneously in translation practice.

“Corresponding” is suitable for the translation of "partially consistent" Russian proverbs introduced in 1.2 of this chapter. "Partially consistent" Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese with corresponding proverbs with different images but the same or similar meaning. At this time, if the “equivalent translation” is adopted, readers will be misunderstood and the translated language will lose the national characteristics of Russian proverbs. Therefore, when translating such proverbs, the original image should be kept as much as possible and the expression form of Chinese proverbs should be used. In addition to the examples already mentioned above, there are similar ones:

(1)Ложка дёгтю в бочку мёду. 一勺焦油坏了一桶蜜(A spoonful of tar breaks a bucket of honey), referring to the Chinese proverb "一粒老鼠屎坏了一锅汤(A mouse poop breaks a pot of soup)"(Jia Shufen 1996,145)

(2) Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟(No fire, no smoke)， refers to the Chinese proverb "无风不起浪(No wind, no waves)"(Jia Shufen 1996,240).

(3) Шила в мешке не устаишь. 口袋藏不住坠子(Pendant cannot be hidden in the pocket）, refers to the Chinese proverb "纸包不住火(Paper cannot keep fire)"(Jia Shufen 1996,303).

Such Russian proverbs refer to the expression form of Chinese proverbs. On the basis of retaining the language structure characteristics of Russian proverbs, they do not lose the national cultural characteristics of Russian proverbs. They are successful translations. “Corresponding” uses the expression form of Chinese proverbs to make the translation easier to be accepted by readers. While using the translation method “corresponding”, in fact, the literal translation method is also used. The two are closely combined to maximize the original image and style(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

====3.3 Free translation and loan translation====
The national cultures of China and Russia are quite different. When Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs use completely different figurative images, the figurative images in the literal original text will make the translation difficult to understand and accept, or cause misunderstandings. Using “corresponding” to translate Russian proverbs may cause deviation in understanding. In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text, free translation can be used for translation at this time. Free translation refers to a translation method that readjusts the structure of the original text on the basis of the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the original text clearly in a new way of expression.

For example, the Russian proverb "Язык до Киева довезёт. 舌头（语言）把你带到基辅。(The tongue (language) brings you to Kiev)" Kiev is an ancient city in the former Soviet Union. In ancient times, Kiev was called the mother city of the Russians and one of the most famous cities (Chen Ying 2000,90). Therefore, as long as you ask for directions, you will find Kiev. Therefore, this Russian proverb actually emphasizes the importance of "язык". The literal translation will obviously make readers puzzled. However, it can be translated as "有嘴走遍天下（With a mouth to travel all over the world）" through free translation, which is more appropriate and easy to understand(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

"На воре шапка горит(Jia Shufen 1996,176)." is literally translated as "小偷的帽子着火(The thief's hat is on fire)". If you don’t understand the source of the proverb, you cannot understand its meaning. This proverb originated from a story: Someone found a thief stealing, so he shouted in the crowd, "The thief's hat is on fire." When the thief heard it, he involuntarily looked at his head and exposed himself and was arrested. . Through free translation, this proverb can be translated as "the thief has a guilty conscience", so that the meaning of the original text can be more accurately conveyed to the reader(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

There are always commonalities and individualities in Russian and Chinese national cultures. Therefore, as mentioned in 1.2, there are cases where Russian and Chinese proverbs express the same or similar meanings in different cultural images. In this case, when the differences between Russian and Chinese proverbs are too prominent, you can also consider loan translation to translate, that is, by analyzing the internal meaning of Russian proverbs, borrowing Chinese proverbs with different images but expressing the same meaning for translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). E.g:

(1) Семь раз примерь, один раз отрежь.三思而后行(Jia Shufen 1996,345)。(Look before you leap.)

(2) Всякая лисица свой хвост хвалит. 王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸(Jiang Xiuhua 1999,166)。(Every cook praises his own broth.)

(3) Горбатого могила исправит. 禀性难移。(Human nature is hardly changed.)(Ye Fanglai 1987,102)

Using this translation method, the translation is not exactly the same as the original, and the content and form of the two are also very different. This distinguishes the loan translation method from the equivalent translation counterpart translation method and the “corresponding”. In fact, the loan translation method can be regarded as a variant of the free translation method, because the loan translation is actually an expression made by re-adjusting the structure of the original text on the basis of understanding the meaning of the original text. But it should also be distinguished from free translation, because the loan translation method borrows the proverbs already in Chinese. This method has lost the image in the original proverb and cannot be called a perfect translation method. It should be avoided as much as possible(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

====3.4 Addition and annotation====

Addition and annotation are compensatory translation methods, which supplement and reveal the cultural information in the original text.(Wang Yanrong 2013,114), the two explanations in the translatology dictionary are "to add some words according to the needs of semantics, rhetoric or syntax in translation, so as to faithfully and smoothly express the ideological content of the original text." And a translator's compensation method in order to fully express the original semantics and style in the process of translation is to help achieve the equivalence of translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2003,111)

Many Russian proverbs may produce pragmatic failure after literal translation. In order to avoid this failure, we can use the method of adding words or adding notes to introduce the image and cultural background of the original text in the form of annotation. This method makes the translation more vivid and intuitive, while retaining the image of the original text, showing the national characteristics of Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

For example, the Russian proverb "И на солнце есть пятна." is literally translated as "太阳上也有黑点。(There are black spots on the sun.)" This translation is obviously difficult for readers to accept and understand, but if the Chinese proverb "金无足赤，人无完人(Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)" with the same meaning is added after it to reveal its connotation, “太阳上也有黑点—金无足赤，人无完人。(There are also black spots on the sun—Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)” This form of translation can allow readers to understand the meaning of the proverb clearly and keep the original image in Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

Another example is "В Тулу со своим самоваром не ездят." literally translated as "不要带着茶炊去图拉。(Don't take a samovar to Tula.)" This Russian proverb has a strong Russian national color. Tula was once famous throughout the country for the production of samovars, and was the center of Russia's metallurgical industry and metal manufacturing. Taking the samovar to Tula, which is rich in samovars, actually means "make an unnecessary move". This proverb is very vivid. Russians can naturally understand and understand its meaning, but as Chinese readers who do not understand Russian culture, it may be difficult to understand the literal translation of this proverb.

Therefore, this proverb can be translated as "带着茶炊去图拉—多此一举(Bring a samovar to Tula--make an unnecessary move)", or add a note in brackets: "Tula is famous for making samovars." In this way, readers can not only understand the meaning of proverbs, but also intuitively feel the cultural elements of Russia. It can said as killing two birds with one stone(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). This translation method is often used in the situations described in 1.3. Examples also include:

（1）За двумя зайцами погонишься ни одного не поймаешь. 一人追双兔，到头两手空—一心不可二用。(One man chases two rabbits, and in the end two hands are empty--no man can do two things at once.)

（2）На языке мёд а в сердце лёд. 嘴上甜似蜜,心里冷若冰—笑里藏刀。(Sweet as honey on the mouth, cold as ice in the heart--hide a dagger in a smile.)

The above-mentioned several Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should not be limited to one of them. We should make a specific analysis according to the specific situation, flexibly use different translation methods, and learn from others' strong points, so as to achieve a harmonious translation.

===4. Translation strategies of Russian proverbs===

Russian proverbs are concise in language, rich in meaning, vivid in image, beautiful in rhythm and strong in national color. It is not easy to translate them into Chinese accurately and vividly. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should pay attention to the translation strategies in addition to the flexible application of various translation methods.

====4.1 Trace the origin and accurately interpret====
There are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese. When interpreting Russian proverbs, translators are likely to stay on the surface of the text and interpret the meaning from the text, resulting in misunderstanding and translation errors. Therefore, when translating Russian proverbs, especially those with historical or national background, we should carefully examine their allusions, trace back to the source, and accurately interpret the hidden meanings of proverbs.

For example, the Russian proverb "Недосол на столе, а пересол на спине." is literally translated as "菜淡了在桌上，菜咸了在背上。(The dish is light on the table, and the dish is salty on the back.)" This proverb can be traced back to the time of serfdom. Salt was a very valuable thing at that time, and those who wasted salt will be punished. Russians usually have salt shakers on their tables. If the dishes are weak, you can add salt at will, but if they are salty, the cook will be punished by whipping his back. Therefore, the basic meaning of the proverb is that if the dish is cooked, salt can be added, and if the dish is salted, the cook will be beaten. (Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun 2008,149)
However, this proverb was once translated as "多一事不如少一事(One thing more is worse than one thing less)" or "宁缺毋滥(It is better to leave a deficiency uncovered than to have it covered without discretion)". This kind of translation is obviously not appropriate. It is "taking the words too literally" without understanding the historical background(Ye Fanglai 1987,101).

Similar proverbs include "Была бы спина, а то будет вина." literally translated as "只要有脊背，就会有过错(As long as there is a back, there will be fault)" , this Russian proverb also contains the cultural image of "back". As mentioned above, whipping the back was a common punishment method at that time. At the same time, since the whipped person violated the discipline, not the law, there was a certain degree of randomness in determining the punishment object and the degree of punishment. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

Therefore, this proverb actually expresses the meaning of "欲加之罪，何患无辞(Give a dog a bad name and hang him)". If you don't know Russian history, you can't understand the meaning of this proverb. Therefore, it is very important to study the allusions of proverbs and understand their deep cultural meanings.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

====4.2 Retain characteristics and respect national culture====
Proverbs are the cultural crystallization of a nation and have distinctive national characteristics. When translating Russian proverbs, attention should be paid to the comprehensive use of multiple translation methods, to maximize the retention of national characteristics, not only to restore the original image and style, but also to reflect the national cultural connotation, while taking into account the reader's understanding and acceptance. At this time, we may use the methods of addition and annotation mentioned above, and try to avoid over-domestication of Russian proverbs, and respect the national culture. We should analyze it in the specific original text and translate it flexibly(Zhou Changyu 2006,42).

For example, the Russian proverb "Не всё коту масленица, бывает и великий пост." is literally translated as "a cat does not celebrate the festival of Marriage every day, and it always has a Lent." Readers who do not understand the Russian national culture may not understand the meaning of this proverb, if you add a comment at this time, “In Russian festivals, the 7-day Maslenitsa can best reflect the traditions of the Russian nation. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

The “Ross-Robs Festival” originated from the Orthodox Church. The 40-day fast in the Orthodox During the period, people are forbidden to eat meat and entertainment. Therefore, in the week before the start of Lent, people indulge in joy and every family pay close attention to eating meat to make up for the ascetic life during the fast period."If the background cultural knowledge contained in the proverb is revealed, readers will be able to more clearly understand the meaning of the proverb "good times will not last long, and a feast is hard to come by".(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

Another example is the proverb "Не учи рыбу плавать. 不要教鱼儿游泳(Don't teach fish to swim)". Some people have translated the proverb as "不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)". This translation borrowed and translated the image in the original text into a well-known allusion(“班门弄斧”) image in Chinese people. The distortion of the cultural connotation in proverbs is excessive domestication, so it is not appropriate.(Zhou Changyu 2006,42)

====4.3 Pay attention to expression and focus on language use====

On the one hand, as a unique language form, proverbs are popular among the people, and they are a kind of spoken language style with the characteristics of spoken language style. Therefore, in the translation of Russian proverbs, the characteristics of easy to understand and easy to speak should also be reflected in the translation; On the other hand, as the famous Russian linguist A. A. Potebnya（А. А. Потебня） said, proverb “is a short literary work”. Proverbs are also a kind of folk literature, which is actually a literary form. We should pay attention to the aesthetic characteristics of proverbs in translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).

For example, if the proverb “Не учи рыбу плавать.” mentioned above is translated as “不要教鱼儿游泳(Don’t teach fish to swim)”, obviously the literal translation method will accurately retain the original metaphorical image while retaining the colloquial nature of the proverb. It is easy to understand and the translation of "不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)(“班门弄斧”is an Chinese allusion)" is blunt and overly written(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).

Another example is "Слово серебро, молчание золото" literally translated as "雄辩是银，沉默是金(eloquence is silver, silence is gold)" to express the phonology in the original text very well and make people read it catchy. If the Chinese proverb "是非只为多开口，烦恼皆因强出头(Right and wrong just for more mouth, worry all because of strong)", although the meaning is the same, it loses the metaphorical image and popularity of the original text; as for the aesthetic characteristics, the translation of the Russian proverb "Красна птица пером, а человек умом." "鸟美在羽毛，人美在头脑(The beauty of birds is in the feathers, and the beauty of people is in the mind.)" This translation adopts the method of literal translation, while preserving the original image, it also restores the structure of the original text and the rhetorical symmetry, which conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original text(Zhou Changyu 2006,44).

===5. Conclusion===
In short, Russian and Chinese are two very different languages, and the proverbs of the two ethnic groups also have their own characteristics in language form. The translation must take into account the unique style, connotation and meaning of the original text at the same time, while maintaining the fluency of sentences, perfect expression, and achieving the harmony and unity of sound, rhyme and meaning. It is by no means easy, and it is a major test for translators. Translators should not only have a thorough understanding of the original text and the cultural background of the original text, and be proficient in tempering words, but also should flexibly use various translation methods, master translation strategies, and strive to accurately express the profound meaning of Russian proverbs.

===6. References===
[1]Jia Shufen.贾淑芬.(1996). 简明俄汉语谚语词典[A Concise Dictionary of Russian and Chinese Proverbs]. 辽宁大学出版社[Liaoning University Press].

[2] Ye Fanglai.叶芳来.(2005) 俄汉谚语俗语词典[A Dictionary of Russian and Chinese Proverbs].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

[3] Yang Min.杨敏.俄汉谚语翻译中的形象处理.(2017).[Image processing in the translation of Russian-Chinese proverbs]. 文化学刊[Journal of Cultural Studies]200-203.

[4]Wang Xingsong王兴松. (2016). 浅谈俄语谚语的翻译.[On the translation of Russian proverbs].读书文摘[Reading Abstract]78.

[5]Lei Yumei.雷玉梅.(2014).文化视角下的俄语谚语翻译.[Translation of Russian proverbs from a cultural perspective]. 边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]113-114.

[6] Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun. (2008). 马为群，张晓云．谚语版俄语语法教程.[Proverbs Edition Russian Grammar Course]. 哈尔滨工业大学出版社.[Harbin Institute of Technology Press].

[7] Wang Yanrong.王艳荣.(2013).俄语谚语的翻译方法. [The translation method of Russian proverbs]. 安徽文学[Anhui Literature (second half of the month)]114.

[8] Zhou Changyu.周长雨. (2006).俄语谚语的汉译问题. [Chinese translation of Russian proverbs]. 哈尔滨工业大学.[Harbin Institute of Technology].

[9] Sheng Yichao.盛义朝.(2009).俄语谚语翻译初探. [A Probe into the Translation of Russian Proverbs]. 吉林省教育学院学报.[Journal of Jilin Province Education College] 110-111.

[10]Chen Ying.陈颖.(2000).从俄汉谚俗语的对译看民族个性. [Looking at the national personality from the translation of Russian and Chinese proverbs].黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]89-90.

[11]Wang Jinhua, Zhang Li.王金花,张丽.(2006).俄语谚语翻译中有关问题的探讨 [Discussion on Related Issues in Russian Proverb Translation]. 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版)[Journal of Inner Mongolia University of Finance and Economics (Comprehensive Edition)]76-78.

[12]Yu Jun.于军.(2008).浅析俄语谚语及其汉译问题.[Analysis of Russian proverbs and their Chinese translation]. 考试周刊.[Examination Weekly]226-227.

[13] Ye Fanglai. 叶芳来. 1987.浅谈俄语谚语的翻译.[On the translation of Russian proverbs]. 郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版).[Journal of Zhengzhou University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)] 99-103.

[14] Jiang Xiuhua. 姜秀华.(2000). 俄汉语谚语在民族文化方面及修辞特点的对比.[Comparison of Russian and Chinese proverbs in terms of national culture and rhetoric characteristics]. 呼伦贝尔学院学报.[Journal of Hulunbuir University] 66-68.

[15] Hu Aimin.胡爱民.(1986).也谈俄语谚语和俗语的民族色彩.[Also on the national colors of Russian proverbs and sayings]. 外语与外语教学.[Foreign Languages Teaching]52-54.

==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory 李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学==
<center>李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学 </center>

===Abstract===

In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.

===Keywords===
Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered Theory

===摘要===
在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。

===关键词===
联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论

===1.Introduction===
====1.1.Research Background and Significance====

In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, intercultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures.

This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture''“Translators are allowed more liberties on what one might be tempted to call‘the purely linguistic level,’ certainly if the translation is not meant to‘represent’ the original in the translators' culture, but simply to help translators refine their knowledge of their own language.”(Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4).

As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpreting is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpreting strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.

Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that "in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpreting research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpreting by interpreters" (Liu Yingjun 2014,141- 143).

We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpreting. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpreting studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting setting. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao Xiaomei 2020, 105- 108). However, different interpreting settings have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple settings to interpret.

In addition, many Chinese liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpreting from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and "translator-centered theory". The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.（Wang Shaolong 2020,39-40/Mao Zhen 2020,33-34）

====1.2.Definition of Liaison Interpreting====

Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpreting and one-way interpreting according to the direction of interpreting. The liaison interpreting we discuss here is a typical two-way interpreting. We generally believe that liaison interpreting is a kind of interpreting which is different from conference interpreting and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpreting. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpreting earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,12).

This is the early propositions which business interpreting is equivalent to liaison interpreting, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpreting settings, the connotation of liaison interpreting has been expanded to include various forms of interpreting within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a "tripartite communication" model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14).

Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpreting, liaison interpreting is a "bilateral interpreting" within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpreting, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpreting.

====1.3.Research Method====

Based on the "reader-centered theory" of reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory" of "Eco-translatology", this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpreting.

===2.Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===

====2.1.Reception Aesthetics====
Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term "reception aesthetics" was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school.(Jin Huxiong 2002, 264-267)

Izer once said, "Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature"(Guo Hongan 1997，338-339).

There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the "the horizon of expectations"， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading.(Wang Tong 2020, 198-199)

The second concept is the "response-inviting structure", which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a "text blank" in the text that only the reader can fill.(Jin Huxiong 2002,274)

"Text blank" can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.

====2.2.Translator-Centered Theory====
The concept of "translator-centered theory" is closely related to "Eco-translatology" put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen. "Eco-translatology" is a new concept, and there are still many controversies and misunderstandings about it among Chinese scholars. In the opinion of Leng Yuhong, "If we want to construct a systematic and complete “Eco-translatology Theory”, the first thing to be overturned must be the 'translator-centered'!" (Leng Yuhong 2011, 72-73).

The main reason for his conclusion is that he has a misunderstanding of "translator-centered". Leng Yuhong believes that the "translator-centered" puts the "translator" above the "original text" and the "recipient", and takes the translator to an extreme like “translation-center theory”.

Some other scholars believe that, on the one hand, the "translator-centered theory" fails to break through the dichotomization of subject and object; on the other hand, it is interpreted from the perspective of concrete operation instead of philosophical reasoning. Therefore, it lacks an organic connection with the anti-centrism and equality core contained in the Oriental ecological wisdom.(Luo Dijiang 2017， 65)

Then professor Hu retorted, the "translator-centered" concept, in the process of translation is mainly reveals the "leading" role of the translator in the translation process, specifically refers to the translator in the translation process must first "adapt to" the ecological environment of translation, and then, the translator in according to the ecological environment of translation to decide on the "choice" of translation , which includes the translator "selective adaptation" and "adaptive selection" and so on, all the translation behaviors of translation activity is determined by translator, this is the core and intention of "translator-center theory . In other words, the translation system is pluralistic, and the translator should actively adapt to the environment in the process of translation, instead of destroying the relationship between each subject in the translation system to reach the dominant position. Professor Hu also emphasizes the distinction between "translator-centered theory" and "subjectivity" in order to emphasize the dynamic role that translators can play in translation.(Hu Gengshen 2013, 208, 218-219)

Yin suiqiong also believes that ecological paradigm is not a commonality between translation studies and natural ecosystems, but a feature shared by all social science research systems. Hu said that Yin's erroneous conclusion is based on a misunderstanding of the concept of "paradigm", and that “Eco-translatology” and its "translator-centered theory" are the common beliefs of recent translation scholars, rather than emphasizing that they are unique to translatology and natural ecosystems.(Yin Suiqiong 2017, 56-62/ Hu Gengshen 2017, 63-68)

In addition, there are many arguements about “Eco-translatology” and "translator-centered theory" in China, we think that the “translator-centered theory” under the perspective of “Eco-translatology” not mean that "translator" above the "source language" and "recipients", but hope from the perspective of "translator" thinking about the problems in the translation process and the solution to the problem, emphasizes the "translator" actively adapt to the social scene and positive response to this strategy.

Then, what is the relationship between the "reader-centered theory" of reception aesthetics and the "translator-centered theory" of Eco-translatology studies? We think that the two are dialectical unity, reception aesthetics require the translator to fully consider the recipient's cultural quality and cognitive levels, but completely according to the requirements of the recipient to make the choice of translation strategy and translation quality evaluation is too biased, because recipient's aesthetic of translation products too subjective and lack of professionalism, and "translator-centered theory" advocate that the difficulties encountered in the translation should be solved by translators according to their professional judgment and also encourages translators to seek more change through its own development strategy.

Of course, "reader-centered theory" and "translator-centered theory" are not diametrically opposed, and translator-centered theory also requires translators to consider the needs of recipients of translation products. It can be said that "reader-centered theory" is a reference item of "translator-centered theory", and "translator-centered theory" is a further development of "reader-centered theory".

===3.Positioning of liaison interpreter===
In the field of interpretation, there have always been different opinions on the principle of fidelity of interpretation products: some people believe that "sentence by sentence translation" should be carried out, and interpretation products should be faithful to the original text in form. That is, the interpreter should "be like a megaphone" ; Some people believe that interpreters should take into account the cultural context in which communication takes place, and that interpretation products should be faithful to the "meaning" of the original text, that is, the central meaning expressed by the speaker .(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,153)

However, there are significantly more supporters of the latter than the former. This is similar to the debate on the principle of translation in translation studies: literal translation v.s. free translation. The discussion of translation principles is generally focused on literature. At present, we generally believe that different translation strategies should be adopted according to different literary genres and themes. It is also similar in the study of interpretation. Liaison interpreters should adopt different interpreting strategies according to different interpretation scenes and themes. The difference between liaison interpretation and translation comes from R. Bruce W. Anderson's "tripartite communication" theory.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14）

Liaison interpreters are directly facing customers when interpreting, and their interpreting products will be delivered to customers in a timely manner, so the quality of their translation products depends entirely on customers' judgment at present. So when we think about the role of the liaison interpreters, one of the most important references is what the client expects of the interpreter. In addition, the interpreter acts as a bridge between the two sides in communication, and the role of the liaison interpreter is more prominent than that of other types of interpreters.

Therefore, the positioning of the interpreters on themselves is also very important. In addition, another characteristic that distinguishes liaison interpreters from other types of translators is that liaison interpretation is often in a dynamic and diversified scene, unlike other translators who are only in a single translation setting. Therefore, analysis of the interpreting setting is also a part that cannot be ignored when discussing the role positioning of the interpreter.

====3.1.Client's Expectation of the Interpreter's Role====
From the perspective of reception aesthetics, clients will estimate and expect interpretation products in advance according to their reading experience and aesthetic taste. Donova-Cagigos talked about the measurement and judgment of interpretation quality, and believed that if "faithfulness" could not be quantified, it could only be relevant to specific communicative occasions so the results of the clients expectation investigation, such as the user's preference for the delivery of the main idea over the full translation, can be used as an important criterion for rating accuracy and omission.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，169)

This requires the liaison interpreter to adjust his/her role to the client's expectations. Each user's knowledge base, education level and other aspects of the difference will lead to their expectations of liaison interpreters change. We divide clients' expectations on interpreters into two categories: one is that interpreters are expected to interpret faithfully, neutrally and impartially, without mixing their own interpretation with concise output of source language information; The other is to expect interpreters to add their own explanations through omission, addition and other interpreting techniques when interpreting source language information, so as to make interpreting products better understood.

The role expectations of the above two kinds of clients depend largely on the nature of the clients and the purpose for which the clients accept the interpretation. The first kind of clients who hope interpreter completely follow the principle of "faithfulness" , have a comprehensive understanding of the areas involved in interpretation, they receive interpretation mainly for the purpose of obtaining extended knowledge of known fields or general information, or because of the limitation of interpretation theme requires an interpreter to stay neutral, such as legal interpreting.

In this regard, Collados Aís studied the requirements on the interpretation quality standards of the interpreting clients who are experts and found that the subjects did not give low marks to the content errors in the "pleasant to hear" interpretation, but scored them according to other standards. The principle of "faithfulness", which the clients attach most importance to, did not play a corresponding role in the evaluation.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，171)

The second group of clients expect interpreters to go beyond "translation machines" and become helpers who can answer their own questions and facilitate communication. Such clients generally have little knowledge of the fields involved in the interpreting content, and the purpose of receiving interpreting of them is to understand a completely unfamiliar knowledge field and acquire as much new knowledge as possible.

In practice, most clients prefer the latter, which is also determined by the nature of liaison interpreting. One characteristic of liaison interpreters is that interpreters often act as "escorts" (Zhan Cheng 2010,3).

As an example, the author accompanied the "Confucius Institute" visiting group of South Korea's Wonkwang University during undergraduate years., for the purpose of cultural communication, the school asked the author with the delegation visit to cultural sites such as Hunan Provincial Museum, the author's main role in the trip is interpreter, but due to the particularity of interpreting theme, the author needs to explain the names of cultural relics and supplement relevant historical knowledge to the delegation members, so while interpreting, the author also plays the role of a tour guide.

====3.2.The Interpreter's Position on Themselves====
In the perspective of Foucault's power theory, the interpreter is no longer the traditional "transmitter", and the subject consciousness of the interpreter is highlighted. In the practice of interpreting, the interpreter's cognition of his/her status, ability and value is an important manifestation of the interpreter's subjectivity (Wang 2019,14). In liaison interpreting, as a person directly involved in communication and proficient in bilingualism, the liaison interpreter must have the advantage of adopting appropriate interpretation strategies according to power distribution in a communication. From the perspective of "translator-centered theory", liaison interpreters also have the obligation to adapt to different interpreting environments and coordinate the discourse of communication parties. Then the following situations usually occur:

In order to ensure the quality of their interpretation products and promote the progress of communication, liaison interpreters tend to go beyond the act of interpretation itself and make supplementary explanations of the content of interpretation that may cause communication barriers, either intentionally or unintentionally. Or when the interpretation content is of a strong national or national nature, liaison interpreters will inevitably have a tendency to protect the rights of their own country and nation and increase the discourse power of their own country and nation.

Of course, in general, interpreters will try their best to follow the principle of "faithfulness" in interpretation, and the ratio of "faithfulness" to "creativity" depends on the "choice" made by the liaison interpreter according to the translation environment.

====3.3.The Role of Interpreter under Different Liaison Interpreting Types====
"There is no absolute or unambiguous criterion for determining whether a method of interpreting is' good 'in all respects. Different types of interpreting activities have different target structures, different concerns, needs, expectations, and different levels of participation by all parties involved, which means that there are a variety of requirements for interpreters ".（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，172）

Therefore, the author believes that when discussing the role of the liaison interpreter, the role of the interpreter should be analyzed according to the different interpretation types. Next, the author intends to take business interpreting, guide-interpreting and legal interpreting as examples to analyze the roles of interpreters suitable for different interpreting type.

=====3.3.1.Business Interpreting=====
Business interpreting is different from other liaison interpreting. First, business interpreting usually takes place in the context of cooperative project negotiation. In communication, the monolingual speakers respectively represent the interests of their enterprises and, usually, the interests of the countries where the enterprises are located.Secondly, the communicative parties usually have the purpose of long-term cooperation. Third, the content of business interpreting usually contains a large number of professional terms and figures; Fourth, business interpreters are usually permanent employees of one side of the communication. Fifthly, advanced diction is usually used in business interpretation.

Due to the above characteristics of business interpreting, it is necessary for liaison interpreters to have the following accurate understanding of their role positioning.

First, business interpreters are channels to convey "meaning". This is the basic professionalism of an interpreter. Liaison interpreting is also known as bilateral interpretation. The existing bilateral interpretation model is based on the "tripartite communication" model. As one of the three parties, the liaison interpreter, like the Internet connecting two terminals, undertakes the task of processing the communication information between the two parties.

Second, business interpreters are debaters for the benefit of their clients. Because of the long-standing relationship between liaison interpreters and clients, clients tend to treat the interpreters they hire as their "inside" colleagues.In many business communication situations, clients represent the interests of their own enterprises and are in a fast-changing vanity fair, and the business interpreters employed by them, as bilingual and with certain knowledge of the business, are bound to be the target for clients to seek help.(Zhang Meng 2014，29)

Third, business interpreters are mediators of the negotiation atmosphere. In business negotiations, it is often the case that the two parties in communication fight for their own interests and the negotiation comes to a deadlock. Business interpreters have the obligation to use interpreting strategies and techniques to soften the atmosphere and act as a buffer when both sides are using increasingly extreme language and tone.

Fourth, a business interpreter is also a professional "business practitioner". Business interpreters are professional "business practitioners" who are the second most important role besides "interpreter". This is also based on the first point of the basic role of the interpreter positioning. Sometimes the two sides of communication have different professional terms for the same concept. In order to facilitate the smooth communication between the two sides, usually the interpreter needs to be familiar with the relevant terms and interpret them quickly and accurately. In other words, it requires not only a good command of a foreign language, but also a good knowledge of business.（Zhang Meng 2014，29）

=====3.3.2.Guide-interpreting=====
In addition to the business interpreting and legal interpreting mentioned by Pǎchhacker in the classification of interpreting, guide-interpreting is also distinguished from other liaison interpreting in that it has the most prominent intercultural characteristics and the emphasis of interpretation is on the inheritance of the culture reflected in the source language. In a sense, the role of a guide-interpreter is similar to that of a diplomat, who not only needs to make tourists understand the history and culture of China, but also needs to answer their questions accurately and timely. As a result, guide-interpreters should pay more attention when making role positioning.(Jia Zhiyong 2017，223/ Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,160-162)

First, guide-interpreters are facilitators of communication. In the tourism-themed interpreting work, the interpreter's duty is to help tourists and tour guides communicate, which is also the embodiment of the interpreter's "bridge" role in the field of tourism. So in some cases, it is necessary for an interpreter to supplement the source language, such as when a Chinese tour guide introduces a mountain to English-speaking tourists and says:

ex）“大家现在看到的山远看像一条卧龙，因此取名卧龙山。”
And then the interpreter can interpret this sentence as:

1）*"The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain."

2）"The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain. ‘Wolong’ means sleeping dragon."

Obviously, the first interpreting product does not convey the original intention of the tour guide to the tourists. The tour guide's original intention is to let the tourists know that the name of the mountain has something to do with its appearance. However, if the name of the mountain is transliterated directly without supplementary explanation, the tourists will still not understand the connection between the name of the mountain and its shape.

Second, tour interpreters are "cultural brokers". Besides interpreting the words of tour guides to tourists, interpreters should also properly explain some incomprehensible cultural phenomena to tourists. For example, a tour guide introduces the Palace Museum in Beijing to foreign tourists.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,161)

The Palace Museum in Beijing is a completely symmetrical building built along a central axis. The ancient Chinese, influenced by Confucianism, believed that a completely symmetrical building could foil the majesty of the emperor. If the interpreter only changes the language of the original when interpreting this sentence, it will not make the foreign tourists understand The Chinese Confucian culture correctly. Because the guide as well as Chinese tourists learn at an early age and contact with Confucianism, so the Chinese subconsciously has "symmetrical architecture", "Confucianism" and "Confucianism" link up without the need for further explanation, but as an interpreter should be aware that foreign tourists are likely to have no contact with Confucianism, also don't know "symmetrical architecture" and "Confucianism", so when the tour guide has no further explanation, the interpreter is necessary for additional instructions, play the role of a "cultural agent".

Third, guide-interpreters are the keepers of the atmosphere. The working scenes of guide-interpreters are informal, such as scenic spots and hotels, so the intonation and wording of interpreters should be in line with the current atmosphere. If the intonation is too plain and the wording is too serious, foreign tourists will find it difficult to adapt to it, and the interpreting products of interpreters will also "reject" the interpreting settings.

Fourth, guide-interpreters are "experts" in the tourism industry. Similar to a business interpreter, a guide-interpreter requires a comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the relevant field, which is the basis for the interpreter to act as a "culture broker".

Fifthly, there is another special case in which a guide-interpreter may be both an interpreter and a tour guide. When the author was an undergraduate, the author acted as an interpreter for the "Confucius Institute" delegation of Wonkwang University in South Korea, mainly following them to various cultural tourist attractions. Since the author had been to relevant scenic spots for many times, the author acted as a dual role of "interpreter" and "tour guide" without employing professional guides.

=====3.3.3.Legal Interpreting=====
Legal interpreting refers to interpreting under legal settings, including judicial interpreting and quasi-judicial interpreting. Judicial interpreting refers to "interpreting under court settings", while quasi-judicial interpreting refers to interpreting taken place outside the court and closely related to court procedure (Zhao Junfeng，Dong Yan 2020,70).

In distinguishing between international and community settings, Pǎchhacker points out that court interpreting is "the most obvious binding setting for community interpreting". (Franz.Pǎchhacker, 2010,177) The author takes courtroom interpreting as an example for analysis. In court interpreting, the situation of interpretation is more serious than that of other types of interpreting, because of the rigor of the law, the interpreter should also be more precise in the wording and sentence construction. The roles of court interpreters are as follows:

First, an invisible interpreting machine. In most court interpreting, the restrictions imposed by the legal system on interpreters are often contrary to the standards advocated by the interpreting profession (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,178). In order to maintain the rigor of the law, court interpreters are required to be "invisible" and interpret word by word, so the nature of the law gives court interpreters a role positioning that distinguishes them from other types of interpreters -- "artificial intelligence interpreting machine" with high accuracy.

Second, conflict mediators. This role is due to the large power gap between legal practitioners such as judges and non-legal practitioners such as defendants and plaintiffs in the courtroom. In tense court debates, interpreters often act as conflict mediators in order to keep communication going.

Third, intercultural agents. In fact, it is not only guide-interpreting, there will be more or less cultural barriers in any intercultural communication, and court interpreting is no exception. There was a famous case in which a Chinese-grandmother who lived in the United States gave "刮痧" to her sick grandson. Her son-in-law mistakenly thought that she had abused the child, so she was brought to court. The grandmother argued in court that it was only "刮痧", and the interpreter made additional explanations and said："‘刮痧’is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy" in order to make the American judge understand "刮痧" , and the case was finally dismissed. This example well demonstrates the important role of interpreters as intercultural agents in court interpretation. (Du Mengmeng, Tan Jianying 2013,106-107)

Fourth, legal "experts". In order to ensure the accuracy of the interpreting and the accurate understanding of legal terms by the listener of the TL, interpreters usually need to master a large amount of legal knowledge and relevant vocabulary accurately, and be able to provide basic answers for the listener lacking legal knowledge when necessary.

To sum up, the role of an interpreter is generally related to the above three aspects. In other words, due to the limitations of client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge and setting, interpreters need to make "adaptive selection" and "selective adaptation" to different interpreting environments according to client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge. The role positioning of the interpreter affects the interpreting strategies that the interpreter chooses in the actual interpreting process, so the balance between "reception aesthetics" and "translator-centered theory" in different interpreting settings is of vital importance.

===4.Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Settings===
====4.1.The Influence and Application of Reception Aesthetics and "Translator-Centered Theory" on Interpreting Strategies====
As mentioned in the previous section, there are two main types of interpretation customers: those who expect faithful interpreting and those who expect supplementary interpreting. When interpreters fail to communicate with clients in advance and adjust their interpreting strategies according to clients' expectations, they will often produce interpreting products deviating from clients' needs, thus leading to errors in the transmission of interpreting information and resulting in interpreting barriers. The influence of such factors can be largely eliminated by preparation before interpreting.

In the pre-interpretation preparation stage, interpreters can understand the cultural background of clients in advance or directly communicate with clients to understand their needs. Only by integrating interpretation products with clients' expectations can they be regarded as successful interpreting products. However, in practical interpreting, interpreters also encounter another kind of difficulty, that is, clients have aesthetic expectations of interpreting products and expect interpreters to make detailed explanations of relevant information.

We know that the aesthetic value of an interpreting product derives from the "places of indeterminacy" of the product. Generally speaking, it is the space to appreciate an interpreting product, similar to the "blank space" in a Chinese painting. A balance should be struck between the degree of supplementary explanation and the degree of artistic "white space" in interpreting, which is difficult to grasp precisely because the clients who often make such requests do not have an accurate definition. In order to deal with this problem, interpreters have to make perceptual judgments based on their rich practical experience. Of course, it is not feasible to develop interpreting strategies based entirely on clients' expectations.

Lv Jun once put forward, "Every reader has different natural talent, endowment, experience and cultivation, so the works will present different meanings to each reader... If based on such a theory, how can we draw the conclusion of ‘principle of equivalence’?" This is also the paradox between reception aesthetics and Nida's ‘functional equivalence theory’" (Lv Jun 1997，51).

As interpreters are participants in intercultural communication, their own factors must have a great impact on the quality of interpreting. The author believes that the problem of interpreting obstacles caused by interpreters' own factors can be solved through the "translator-centered theory" in "Eco-translatology". The "translator-centered theory" requires interpreters to develop themselves, that is, interpreters should change their interpreting circumstances and improve their interpreting ability, so as to obtain freedom of choice to ensure their central position in interpreting activities.(Luo Dijiang 2019，219)

Interpreters can expand their power in interpreting activities by improving their interpreting ability and using interpreting techniques. According to Pǎchhacker, there are two ways to improve interpreting skills: personal qualities and professional skills. Personal quality includes biological individual function and psychological quality. Professional skills mainly refer to bilingual skills. First of all, how to improve personal quality and ability. Apart from the inherent intelligence factor, interpreters should actively improve their psychological quality, which is a necessary guarantee for the smooth progress of interpreting.（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,181）

In case of difficulties, interpreters should not be flustered, but should actively take various countermeasures to overcome or temporarily avoid the difficulties to ensure the quality of the overall interpreting products. Zhan Cheng suggested that interpreters could simplify this by seeking help from the speakers (Zhan Cheng 2010，153-154).

In addition, the author believes that the predicament of interpreting can also be solved by "imitation words"， which is a special kind of loanwords. Take Chinese-Korean interpreting for example. In the Hunan Provincial Museum, there is a collection called "纪念木牍", which is a piece of wood used for writing in ancient China to records the time of some events, a time when the interpreter didn't know its corresponding proper nouns, can according to its pronunciation rules imitate a word - "기년목독". Since both countries belong to the same cultural cycle of Chinese characters , Koreans learn basic Chinese characters from an early age, so they can understand the meaning and use of the imitated words even if they are not accurate.

There is also a case in French where the word science-fiction is directly interpreted into English. This is very useful for solving the sudden interpreting obstacles encountered in the process of interpreting.(Munday, J 2014, 80)

In terms of improving professional skills, before the beginning of interpreting, interpreters should have a systematic system of interpreting notes, which should be as concise as possible to improve the efficiency of interpreting symbols, and should be used to test the practicality of symbols in practice. Interpreters should also accumulate professional knowledge and vocabulary in various fields in daily life, and be familiar with the interpreting content and background knowledge before starting an interpreting.

At the end of the interpreting work, the interpreter should review the difficulties encountered in the interpreting activities and think positively about the solutions to avoid repeating the past mistakes. With the development and progress of science and technology, modern science and technology have been widely used in the field of interpreting. Using digital recording technology, the interpreters can replace the notes in the interpreting by simply using portable devices such as computers to attach the source words to the digital audio tape and then playing them through headphones (Franz. Pǎchhacker 2010, 186).

In addition, modern technology can also be used to build artificial intelligence corpus, which can be used to classify corpus according to different translation topics.

====4.2.Interpreting Strategies in Different Settings====
Whether it is business interpreting, guide-interpreting or legal interpreting, interpreters are faced with the choice of "faithfulness" and "creativity". However, different types of liaison interpreting have different "interpreting ecological environments". The author analyzed the interpreting strategies applicable to these three types of liaison interpreting respectively.

The clients of business interpreting have unclear requirements on interpreting products, which require interpreters not only to profit for the company but also to regulate the atmosphere, while the ecological environment of business interpreting requires interpreters to be both "faithful" and "creative". Therefore, the interpreter has to adjust the strategy according to the specific interpreting content at any time. When both sides of the communication are negotiating for benefits, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “faithfulness” rather than “creativity”; when the two sides are chatting, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “creativity” rather than “faithfulness”; and when the two sides enter into a deadlock, the interpreter should use the "creative" interpreting to ease the atmosphere.

In guide-interpreting, the interpreter's role as "cultural broker" and "atmosphere maker", clients are usually expect interpreters interpret products for their own pleasure, so in the interpreting process of the guide-interpreting, interpreters should be as creative as possible through omission or addition, lively tone and appropriate word choice to achieve clients' expectations. At the same time, interpreters should not completely rebel against the principle of "faithfulness" without regard to the content of the SL.

Although interpreters also play the role of intercultural agents in legal interpreting, their more important role is interpretation machine for legal provisions. The ecological environment of legal interpreting is in a highly tense and rigorous atmosphere, which requires interpreters to adapt to the rigorous atmosphere and try their best to interpret sentence by sentence.

===5.Conclusion===
In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory".

The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory". The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between "faithfulness" and "creativity".

We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of "faithfulness" and "creativity" according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the "creativity" of interpretation products on the basis of "faithfulness", so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret "word by word". Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content.

This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. After the end of interpretation, we can reflect on the mistakes and make an interpreting corpus to avoid repeating the mistakes in the future.In a word, interpreters should strike a balance between "faithfulness" and "creativity" by relying on their professional quality and customers' expectations, which is the only way to improve the quality of interpretation products.

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--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 17:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=Translation Appreciation=

==Study on Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==

<center>袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi </center>

===Abstract===

''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in American literature. Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into Chinese, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times in China. The version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and the most influential one in China, and it is regarded as a classic translation. There have been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are relatively few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi's translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to translation studies of ''Walden'' and literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.

===Key words===

''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics

===题目===
从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本

===摘要===

《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。

===关键词===

《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学

===Introduction===

====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====
=====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====
''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise, powerful, simple and natural which represent a unique style among American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord, at there he cultivated his own land, ate food grown in his land and experienced a life that is simple and close to nature. Thoreau loved and appreciated nature and he immersed himself in nature. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment.

=====Introduction to ''Walden''=====
''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which records Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two years from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau's view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.
''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, this book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages.
Thoreau's own practices in reality and his works both reflected his ideal, that is returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by their families, works and various material needs, thus they lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.

====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====
=====Introduction to Xu Chi=====
Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription "Poetry expresses ambition", and he was known as "Contemporary Chinese Goethe" and "Father of Reportage". Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).

=====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====
In 1949, Xu translated ''Walden'' into Chinese called "华尔腾". However, his translation failed to elicit widespread attention. Because at that time, people all over China were immersed in the joy of gaining liberation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'' which promotes tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.

In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it "瓦尔登湖", which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu Chi's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu Chi's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden'' (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).
Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, could he have more resonance with the writers and their works and thus he could reproduce the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent.(Yao Junwei 2005, 146).

Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's work, did Xu Chi love this book so much and he decided to translate this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes did not have time to read it. Because this book was too difficult to understand, Xu Chi found that it seemed that this book was not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, later he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he felt it quite interesting. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the night became quiet, the book became not so obscure and he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).

''Walden'' is Xu Chi's most successful translation. He translated it first in 1949, then again in 1982 and finally in 1996. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'' in recent years, but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translation of ''Walden''. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference , which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation (Wang Zhao 2009, 147).

====Style and Styllistics====
=====Style=====
Originated from Latin or Greek word "stile" or "stilus", "style" originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 374).
Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of "figures" that conform to his or her mode of discourse (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 375).

For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.

One of the most successful attempts to define "style" in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short's definition. They offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:
(a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language.
(b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text).
(c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function.
(d) Stylistic choices is limited to those aspects of linguistic choices which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter. (Leech and Short 1981)

Another example is Nida Eugene's definition. He pointed out that translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. So in translation of literary works, the author's style should be represented through the translator's style, and the translator's style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers'styles and yet has its own unique translation style (Nida Eugene 1982, 12).

The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of linguistic style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-linguistic style include the author's emotion, the author's imagination and the author's intelligence. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of linguistic style. (Lv Jun & Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).

In conclude, translation, especially literary translation as an cross-cultural process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.

=====Styllistics=====
Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms. It is an interdisciplinary subject, which is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines. Its object of study is the style of language.

It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 376).

=====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====
''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Thoreau'language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized as plain, natural, concise, powerful, and unique. ''Walden'' is also a book which aims directly at the reader. Anyone who reads this book will feel like they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. However, this book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Because ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: rich vocabulary, complex syntax and various rhetorical devices (Zhang Jianguo 2005, 107).

So it is helpful for translators to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand Thoreau' stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his language style in the target language.

===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===
====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====
=====Degree of Formality=====
In ''Walden'', Thoreau used concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, Thoreau's choice of words suggests that general style of ''Walden'' is not that formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation.

First, let us see a example of translation of nouns in Xu Chi's version.
Example 1：
…；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)
Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)

As can be seen from the above, "washing" in Xu Chi's translation is understood as "洗瀣物". "washing" is a common word English-speaking people use in their daily lives. However, "瀣" is not a word Chinese people encounter very often in their daily conversations. Although the word "洗瀣物" reproduced the content of "washing" but it can not reflect the degree of formality of the original word. Thus it fail to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．

Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. So let us look at a example of it.
Example 2：
Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)
Xu Chi's Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有冻馁之忧。(徐迟 2009, 83)

In original text, the first adjective "poor" is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered "cold and hungry" into a four-character noun phrase "冻馁之忧" which means which appears uncoordinated with three adjectives "邋遢", "褴褛" and "粗野" being placed before the noun phrase "冻馁之忧". What is more, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.

Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the following analysis.
Example 3：
I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house, and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill, in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)
Xu Chi's Translation：
我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)

As we can see from the example, these verbs in the original text are concise and they are common in our daily speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word "see" into "考察" which sounds serious and formal, because "考察" means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as "考察人" or "考察情况". So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.

=====Expressive Meaning=====
The lexical meaning of a word or lexical unit may be thought of as the specific value it has in a particular linguistic system. But it is rarely possible to analyze a word, pattern or structure into distinct components of meaning; Nevertheless, it is sometimes useful to play down the complexities of language temporarily in order to appreciate them and to be able to handle them better in the long run (Zgusta 1971, 67).

Roman Jakobson coined the term expressive or emotive as one of the functions of language. He described it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], which aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about and gives interjections as the prime example of this function (Jakobson 1960, 354).

It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness. Here is a exampe.
Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)
Xu Chi's Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子从大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)

According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, "sweeping" is the act of a sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.) in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of "flood tides", "westerly winds" and "ice" was destructive and therefore it is clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word "sweep" here reflects the speaker's negative attitude towards the possible outcome. Obviously, the word "冲掉" in Xu Chi's translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker's attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and ice. Xu ignored the author's emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause and thus he did not produce equivalence of "sweep".

====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====
Raffel (1994) points out that "the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said." So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should not be ignored.

In the original text, there are many short sentences with neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structures in translation and he adopted the method of literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text. Since both Chinese and English are discourse systems, literal translation can be a good way to deal with them.
Example 5:
It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137)
Xu Chi’s Translation:
这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)

This paragraph has a neat structure and neat antithesis, and it has pleasing and harmonious rhythm. The original text is composed of ten verses. Xu Chi retained the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value. And he paid attention to the rhythm of the original text and retained it in his translation, which makes his translation closer to the original text.

====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====
=====Metaphor=====
According to the Webster dictionary, "metaphor" means a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in drowning in money).
Example 6:
Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012, 7)
Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。 (徐迟 2009, 6）

The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are "public opinion" and "weak tyrant". There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason:"compared to our own private opinions". People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is slightly weak. The use of metaphor here shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly, expressing the meaning of the original text.

=====Pun=====
Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meanings in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) pointed out that "pun translation is unimportant but fascinating".

The use of puns in ''Walden'' is remarkable. The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two layers of meaning in a word, a phrase or a sentence, they are often used as a link between the preceding text and following text. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence of the text and its rhetorical and aesthetic effects.

Example 7：
If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)
Xu Chi's Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，—那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)

This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that "Walden" might come from "Walled-in". "Walled-in Pond", as a homophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu Chi wisely translated it as "围而得", retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the similar meaning. "围而得" maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph. It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.

=====Personification=====
Personification refers to the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature. People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.

Example 8：
This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)
Xu Chi's Translation:
我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)

Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. Thoreau shares his experience of growing beans and his plan for next summer with readers here. As we know, words like "sincerity", "truth", "simplicity", "faith" and "innocence" usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduced the rhetorical feature of the original.

===Conclusion===
The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult.
To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.

===References===
Leech.G.N. & M. H. Short. (1981). ''Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Newmark P. (2001). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.

Nida Eugene. (1982). ''Translating Meaning''. Sandimas: English Language Institute. 12.

Raffe. (1994). ''The Art of Translating Prose''. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press．

Roman Jaobson. (1960). ''“Linguistics and Poetry” in Style and Language''. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Thoreau Henry David. (2012). ''Walden''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, INC.

Hu Zhuanglin 胡壮麟. （2015). 语言学高级教程 [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. Beijing：Peking University Press

Lv Jun & Hou Xiangqun 吕俊,侯向群. (2001) 《英汉翻译教程》[English-chinese Translation Course].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.320.

Wu Siying & Li Jing 吴巳英,李靖. (2011). 外国文学翻译体例的时代演变——基于《瓦尔登湖》不同译本的比较. [The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. ''湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.

Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Yao Junwei 姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. ''外国文学研究'' [Study of Foreign Literature] 4 145-149.

Zhang Jianguo 张建国. (2005). 梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的语言风格探析 [Analysis on language Style of Walden By Thoreau]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报'' [Journal of Henan Commercial College] 03 106-107.

==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==

<center>王美玲 Wang Meiling</center>

===Abstract===

The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.

===Key words===

Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;

===摘要===

文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。

===关键词===

文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；

===1.Introduction===

The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice."First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas."（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）

Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?

===2.Brief Comments on Translation Thoughts in the Period of Renaissance===

Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. "In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist." Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. （Tan Zaixi，2004：68）

Translations must be faithful to the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. "In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist." Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. （Tan Zaixi，2004：68）--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the "Chief Translator" of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.（Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）

Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of "trying to be comparable to the original work", and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a "feeling of beauty". （Tan Zaixi，2004：68-69）

leaving readers a "feeling of beauty".--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre.(Tan Zaixi，2004：76-77）

From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance.Liu Junping said: "In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. "（liu Junping,2009:76）

Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. "The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers." (Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）

This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.

In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language.(Tan Zaixi，2004：83）

Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.(Tan Zaixi，2004：64）

===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===

====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====

Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as "the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century". Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.(Liu Hongyan,2010:1）

Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the "first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.(Tan Zaixi，2004：68）

====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====

=====3.2.1 Lu Xun's "Foreignization"=====

Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of "Foreignization" , which preserved the "exoticism". Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of "Foreignization" could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, "Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution."（Chen Fukang,2000;286）

With regard to his translation concept of "Foreignization", he had such remarks :

“还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)

From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to "conveying feelings" and "improving education", and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.

From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to "conveying feelings" and "improving education", and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generations to achieve the goal of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.2 Luther's "Domesticization"=====

In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that " Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German."
In the A Short History of Translation in the West, Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)

In the ''A Short History of Translation in the West'', Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

"Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise."

Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of "naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.

====3.3 Conclusion====

Lu Xun's translation principle of "Foreignization", which preserved "exoticism", satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.

Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.

Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.(Liu Hongyan，2010:2）

===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===

Engels praised Luther:"Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century." (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.

'''Example one '''

“You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”

“The translator can change the word order of the original text”

“严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）

Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of "拉开" can only be issued by human beings, and the "心幕" is not a physical object which cannot be "pulled open". In the process of translation, we find that the action of "拉开" does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of "拉开" and "心幕" is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb "拉开", which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose"涌出" as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb "unveil". Naturally, the phrase "五年前的一个印象" becomes the subject. scene of five years ago", and the word "before" was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation "A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye." It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to "The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the "心幕" and the "印象" is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of "faithfulness", meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.

'''Example Two'''

“The necessary conjunctions can be added.”

“作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）

After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences.(Zhang Sijie,Zhang Bairan,1998:54)

Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.

'''Example Three'''

The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”

“不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）

Translators find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word "奋斗" may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to "奋斗", the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be "struggle", "fight", and "strive", one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is "raising flowers", which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the "奋斗" of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word "struggle" by using such phrases as "weather through", "carry on the struggle for existence" to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.

'''Example Four'''

“Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”

In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, "One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him."（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.

Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.

===5.Conclusion ===

In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.(Tan Zaixi，2004：67）

After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's A Short History of Translation in the West and Chen Fukang's A History of Translation Theory In China, the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.

After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's ''A Short History of Translation in the West'' and Chen Fukang's ''A History of Translation Theory in China'', the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by more practice.

===6.References===

[1]Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.

[2]Chen Fukang 陈福康.(2000).中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China].

[3]Liu Hongyan 刘红岩.(2010). 鲁迅与马丁·路德翻译思想对比研究 [A Comparative Study of Lu Xun's and Martin Luther's translation Thoughts]

[4]Liu Junping 刘军平.(2009).西方翻译理论通史[A General History of Western Translation Theory]

[5]Lu Xun 鲁迅.(1935).鲁迅全集.[The Complete Works of LU Xun]

[6]Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史.[A Short History of Translation in the West]

[7]Zhang Sijie, Zhang Bairan 张思洁,张柏然.(1998).意合与形合.[Parataxis and Hypotaxis]

==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638 英语口译==

<center>康浩宇 Kang Haoyu</center>

===Abstract===

In interpreting, interpreter's memory plays an important role, and the level of the memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. How interpreter's memory ability works is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of "memory", appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretating, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper explores the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretating industry from the principle of memory.

===Keywords===

Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting

===摘要===

在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。译者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。

===关键词===

记忆；翻译记忆；口译

===1 Introduction===

'''1.1 Background'''

Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a part of interpreter's competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognizes and keeps the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decodes the information into the target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019).

With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective ways for translation. In CAT, there is a tool called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness in this aspect(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).

'''1.2 Significance of the Study'''

There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have a better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address their problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on the memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism and effects(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it refers to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improves the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory application in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

'''1.3 Structure of the Study'''

This thesis will be developed in five chapters.
Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.
Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.
Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.
Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.
The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.

===2 Study on Memory===

'''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''

Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things in the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience of human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus of the brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and it is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).

'''2.2. Memory Systems'''

Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''

As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity has more than 9 chunks while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about 5 chunks. The "chunks" here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be further processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''

Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short term memory will be transferred to long term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which stores information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappearance of short term memory is often due to the interruption.

'''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''

Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for a long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.

'''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''

Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters' listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).

'''2.3.1 Memorizing'''

Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).

According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).Unconscious memorization refers to the memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).

Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes "what to remember" and "how to remember". "What to memorize" determines the direction and content of memorization, and "how to memorize" is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However,as for memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).

'''2.3.2 Keeping'''

Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the "image" in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26).

Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

'''2.3.3 Recalling'''

The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of the intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In the aspect of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).

'''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''

Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).

'''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''

The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).

'''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''

Recency effect, also put forward by an American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).

Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).

Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).

===3 Memory in Interpreting===

In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of the original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''

When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of the internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).

Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).

Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).

'''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''

In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the "Deverbalization Mode" theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).

"Deverbalization Mode" theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41).

In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).

Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of the input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of "semantic retrieval", identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

'''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''

'''3.3.1 Logical Memory'''

Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of "recalling" and "interpreting". In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for the interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

'''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''

Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of the information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.

“同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)

The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.

“Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”

From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

'''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''

In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity has only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).

There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.

“环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)

And the official translation is given as followed.

“Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”

In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).

===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===

'''4.1 Translation Memory'''

With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).

'''4.1.1 Definition'''

Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more "smart" and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).

'''4.1.2 Mechanism'''

The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).

Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful when translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)

'''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''

'''4.2.1 Current Situation '''

Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

The first stage is the pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. On the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

'''4.2.2 Limitations'''

Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of the limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.

As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).

As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).

===5 Conclusion===

A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting. However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.

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== The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==

=== Abstract ===
Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention.
The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation.

=== Keywords ===

Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation

=== 摘要 ===

人类已经进入多媒体时代，语言作为一种单一的模态形式已经无法充分表达交际的意义。因此，我们还需要一些其他的情态手段加以加强，以充分表达意义，达到交际的目的，如声音、视觉形象、色彩等。因此，多模态一词引起了语言学家的兴趣和关注。
本文以多模态话语分析理论为基础，旨在在多模态话语分析理论框架下分析以下三个方面：1。多模态在电影《本杰明·巴顿》中的体现，则旨在分析在多模态话语分析的理论框架下，字幕和多模态如何结合起来构建整体意义。第二个目标是讨论电影字幕与其他情态动词的关系，以及不同情态动词之间的关系。三。通过对电影字幕在翻译过程中的整体意义的分析，本文试图对电影字幕翻译提出一些建议。

=== 关键词 ===

多模态语篇分析；视听产品；字幕翻译

=== Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===

''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''

At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language.
Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years.
In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples.

However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis.
In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress & Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress & Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress & Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use.

In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.

''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''

Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level

''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''

Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called "complementary relationship", while the other is called non-complementary relationship.

Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.

=== Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===

''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''

With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as "a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts". (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s.
Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. "Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation." (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)

''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''

Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics:
Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect.

Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities.
Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.
Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed.
Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.

''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''

''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''

It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.

''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''

The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.

''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''

As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film.
There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

=== Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of "Benjamin Button" From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===

''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamin Button' '''

'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.
The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.

''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''

''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''

Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that "the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible". In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.
The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of "rejuvenate" is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.
In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.

When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”
The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)
There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”
The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26任总统)”
In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, "Mr. cake" suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called "Teddy Roosevelt" will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means "cake" in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of "Teddy".

''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''

In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.
When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.”

Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.
When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase "sweep you off your feet" means "to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you"（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to "fall in love" with her but "I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly"(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.

''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''

The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.
“Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of "well" does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.
“You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。”

As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.
For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:
Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)
Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)
The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.

''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''

Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.

Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.
Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: "he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.". (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.

=== Chapter Four Conclusion ===

The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of "rejuvenation" as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.

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[5] Aylanda Dwi Nugroho. The Generic Structure of Print Adver⁃ tisement of Elizabeth Arden’s INTERVENE: A Multimodal Discourse Analysis [J]. DOAJ.2009, 70-85.

[6] Feng Xia封霞.文化翻译视角下的电影字幕翻译——以《哈利·波特》系列电影为例 [Film subtitle translation from the perspective of cultural translation] [J]. 才智.2016.

[7] 刘金菁. 多模态话语分析对高中英语词汇教学的启示 [The Enlightenment of multimodal discourse analysis on senior high school English Vocabulary Teaching] [J]. 教育教学论坛.2014.

[8] Liu Xiuli刘秀丽; 张德禄; 张宜波.外语教师多模态话语与学生学习积极性的关系研究 [Zhang Yibo. A study on the relationship between multimodal discourse of foreign language teachers and students' learning enthusiasm] [J]. 外语电化教学.2013.

[9] Kan Feng阚凤.模态话语分析视角下的电影字幕翻译——以电影《哈利·波特与混血王子》为例 [Film subtitle translation from the perspective of modal discourse analysis: a case study of Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince] [J].理论观察,2014.

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==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company 陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 英语笔译 202070080582==

<center>陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 英语笔译 202070080582</center>

===Abstract===

Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of "The Belt and Road Initiative" and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in the international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers.

As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, many problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions.

According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation involves language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between the source language and the target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, tring to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions.

===Key words===

Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation; Adaptation Theory; Yulin Pharmaceutical Company

===摘要===

中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。

药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。

比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。

===关键词===

中医药品说明书翻译；顺应论；玉林制药公司

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Research Background of the Study====

As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since "The Belt and Road Initiative" proposed for the first time, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. (Luo Haiyan, 2016)

As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaging in R&D, production and sales of TCM. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumers' safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. The quality translation of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. (Luo Haiyan, 2016)

====1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study====

It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence the necessity to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive way and to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. (Cao Qing, 2011)

Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, who thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between the source language and the target language. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications, and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among the foreign medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

===2. Features of TCM Instructions===

Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers' safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications because the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

What's more, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derive from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times. The peculiar traits of TCM language, and the technical terms, directly or indirectly, come from the abstract medical concepts of TCM. The classical style or semi-classical style used in ancient times remains. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn't been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language in Chinese can find no equivalence in English, hence the difficulty in translating them into English. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

===3. Introduction of Adaptation Theory===

Adaptation Theory was firstly proposed in 1987 by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, the secretary general of International Pragmatics Association. And then it has been developed and modified for several times over years, attracting a lot of attention in the linguistics community with its integrated system and solid philosophical foundation. In the book, ''Understanding Pragmatics'', Verschueren describes that "language use must consist of the continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, for language-internal and/or language-external reasons." (Verschueren, 2000)

In other words, when making linguistic choices, language users are influenced by the internal structure of language and the external factors. Verschueren attaches great importance to the adaptation of linguistic structures and contexts, and takes communication as a conscious language choice-making process and dynamic adaptability. The essence of communication and expression is a dynamic process, and the context will change along with communication, thus, language forms and strategies should be taken into consideration so as to comply with the context and achieve effective communication. (Verschueren, 2000)

====3.1 Three Properties of Language====

According to Verschueren, there are three properties in language: variability, negotiability and adaptability, and it is the reason why we can make choices during language usage. "These three properties are inseparable with one another, variability and negotiability being the foundation, the ultimate purpose and core is adaptability." (Verschueren, 2000)

Variability provides a large number of linguistic choices during the process of language usage, and lays a basic foundation for the realization of negotiability and adaptability. Negotiability means language users will go through negotiation with themselves when choosing the most appropriate forms and strategies so as to make adaptation and fulfil the communicative intention. As the core of language property, adaptability enables language users to make linguistic choices provided by variability, and then negotiate to decide which choice to be made in accordance with different language contexts. (Verschueren, 2000)

As mentioned above, these three properties are inseparable with one another. Variability and negotiability make it possible and available for language users to choose the proper form and strategy of a language when making adaptation to a specific language context. (Verschueren, 2000)

====3.2 Four Aspects of Investigation====

Based on the guidance of Adaptation Theory, Verschueren advocates four aspects of investigation in linguistic research, namely, contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability, dynamics of adaptability and salience of adaptation process. (Verschueren, 2000)

Contextual correlates of adaptability "potentially includes all the ingredients of the communicative context with which linguistic choices have to be inter-adaptable." These ingredients include language users, the physical world, the social world (such as social relations, culture, social status and social settings), and the mental world (personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations or intentions, etc.). Since it entails the objective and subjective factors and both sides of language users (utterer and interpreter), making adaptation to the context is of great significance. (Verschueren, 2000)

Structural objects of adaptability happens at all levels of the linguistic structures, ranging from codes and styles, words and clauses, to sentences and prepositional structures. In order to adapt to different cultures and linguistic structures, language users need to choose the most appropriate structure so as to build up the logical relationship and improve the readability and credibility in target language. (Verschueren, 2000)

Dynamics of adaptability means "the development of adaptability processes over time." It is created by the changes and development of language contexts and structures over time. And different words and translation strategies adopted in different contexts show the dynamic adaptability in language use. (Verschueren, 2000)

Salience of adaptation process refers to the various degree of consciousness in the process of making choices. The continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, covers exactly different levels of salience. (Verschueren, 2000)

In conclusion, as the indispensable parts in linguistic analysis, the four aspects of investigation are the necessary factors to explain and describe any given linguistic phenomenon.

===4. Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company===

From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, therefore, the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, there are some instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the Company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. (Verschueren, 2000)

====4.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====

As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and the social world due to the limited materials collected. (Verschueren, 2000)

=====4.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World=====

Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers' mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. (Verschueren, 2000)

Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, which gives a sense of authority and credibility. (Ma Bangxin, 1998)

To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. "正骨水" is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, "Zheng Gu Shui", which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn't the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, "Bone-setting Liquor" would be a better name for the medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

"Bone-setting" means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and "liquor" implies alcohol and other irritating ingredients of the medicine. Consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds when seeing its name. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, "金装正骨水" can be translated to "Golden Bone-setting Liquor", and "极品正骨水" is rendered as "Superb Bone-setting Liquor". Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Another example, "睡安胶囊", the translation is "Shui'an Jiaonang". Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don't recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use "capsule" to indicate the type of this medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

A well-recognized name will arouse the attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang Lifeng advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. "Sleep Mate" or "Insomnia Killer" can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, "mate" is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such a combination, and "killer" combined with "insomnia" implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

=====4.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World=====

According to Verschueren, there is no principle limit to the range of social factors because linguistic choices are inter-adaptable. Basically, social settings and cultures play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point: (Zhou Shumei, 2013)

Example 1 (感冒止咳露)

Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛

Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia

Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles

Traditionally, "伤风" in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of "风" into the human body. "风" is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, "风" or "火", will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, "angina" and "melalgia" might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Besides, "nasal congestion" is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. The revised text, therefore, adopts "snuffle" and "sore throat" to indicate the meaning of "鼻塞" and "咽痛". The same goes to "肢痛", using "pain in muscles" to replace the word of "melalgia", hence the adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)

ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛

TT: Used for children's wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm

RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children

Similarly, example 2 also translates "伤风" into "wind damage", which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes "wind damage" and "exuberant phlegm", adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Literal translation is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers' social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible. (Nigel Wiseman, 2000)

====4.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn====

According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind. As indicated before, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the Company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. (Verschueren, 2000)

=====4.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level=====

Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company: (Zhang Mengjing, 1995)

Example 3 (蛤蚧补肾丸)

ST: 小便频数

TT: Frequent urination

Example 4 (金装正骨水)

ST: 祛风除湿

TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness

RT: Relieve rheumatic pain

Example 5 (珍黄丸)

ST: 消肿止痛

TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain

RT: Relieve swelling pain

Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. "祛风除湿" is a typical example. "风湿" is a disease caused by the invasion of "风" into the human body. If "风邪" cannot be removed from the body soon, "湿" will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, "祛风" is actually the result of "除湿", and vice versa. "消肿止痛" means that the pain is caused by swelling. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

In example 3, "小便频数" is translated into "Frequent urination", the structure of "adjective + noun" in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. Accordingly, the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into "Relieve rheumatic pain" and "Relieve swelling pain", not only implying the causal relationship in TCM language, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Example 6 (感冒止咳露)

ST: 止咳化痰

TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm

RT: Relieve cough and sputum

Example 7 (乌军治胆片)

ST: 疏肝解郁

TT: To course the liver and resolve depression

RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver

In the above two examples, "止咳化痰" is translated into "Suppress cough and transform phlegm". It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn't work well, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context and translate in isolation. "化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, hence the key words being "咳" and "痰", not the verbs. So the translation of "Relieve cough and sputum" would be more comprehensible and readable. (Nigel Wiseman, 2000)

And the example of "疏肝解郁" is actually another one that can be shown the casual relationship in TCM language. "疏" and "解" deliver the same meaning in such context, and "肝郁" is not the meaning of "depression of liver", but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract "Qi" in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into "Relieve Qi stagnation in liver" retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

=====4.2.2 Summary=====

Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation and make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English. (Verschueren, 2000)

From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the Company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level. It is found that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity. (Verschueren, 2000)

With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in the target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

====4.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====

As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren "...strategies are always involved in any type of communication." It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. (Verschueren, 2000)

The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the Company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 8 (正骨水)

ST: 舒筋活络

TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture

Example 9 (金装正骨水)

ST: 舒筋活络

TT: To relax and activate tendons

As for the translation of "舒筋活络", example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using "tendons" to express the meaning of "筋络". (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Besides the different specifications of "正骨水" and "金装正骨水", the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 10 (金装正骨水)

ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力

TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells

Example 11 (筋骨王)

ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。

TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells

Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of "增强" can be expressed by "improve" and "increase", and translators employs "partial" and "local" to express the meaning of "局部". As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 12 (睡安胶囊)

ST: 清心除烦

TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation

Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)

ST: 壮阳益肾

TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney

Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. "清心除烦" is rendered into "To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation", and "To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney" is more like the paraphrase of "壮阳益肾". Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers' mind in a better way. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people in these examples, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between thd source language and the target language. According to Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. (Verschueren, 2000)

As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

===5.Conclusion===

Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of "The Belt and Road Initiative", TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. (Verschueren, 2000)

Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn't deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

While at the same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and acceptable by target cultures and consumers. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. (Zhou Shumei, 2013)

The author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners. And free translation and domestication should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.

===References===

Fischbach, Henry. (1998). Translation and Medicine. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series.

Nigel Wiseman. (2000). Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach. University of Exeter.

Verschueren J. (1987). Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation. International Pragmatic Association.

Verschueren J. (2000). ''Understanding Pragmatics''. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. (2018). http://www.chinayulin.com/

Cao Qing 曹情. (2011). ''中文药品说明书的翻译''[Translation of Chinese Drug Instructions]. Hunan: University of South China 南华大学.

Luo Haiyan 罗海燕. (2016). ''功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译''[Translation of Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Functionalist Translation Theory]. Jiangxu: Nanjing University Of Chinese Medicine 南京中医药大学.

Ma Bangxin 马邦新. (1998). 英文药品说明书的翻译[Translation of English Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' [Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal] (3)16-18.

Ouyang Lifeng 欧阳利锋. (2002). 中医药说明书的英译[English Translation of TCM instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' [Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal] (2)17-20.

Xiao Qiong 肖琼. (2008). ''中医药说明书的翻译''[Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. Guangdong: Guangdong University of Foreign Studies 广东外语外贸大学.

Yuan Binye 袁斌业. (2009). 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[Enlightenment of Linguistic Adaptation Theory on Translation]. ''四川外国语学院院报'' [Journal of Sichuan International Studies University] (9)111-113.

Zhang Mengjing 张梦井. (1995). 药品说明书的英译问题[Problems of English Translation on Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (2)6-9.

Zhou Shumei 周书梅. (2013). 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[Translation Studies from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory]. ''山东省农业管理干部学院学报'' Journal of Shandong Agricultural Engineering College 30(5)138-140

--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 03:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=Machine Translation=
==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==
<center>莫玲 Mo Ling </center>

===Abstract===

Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also prospered in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of "1 + 1 > 2". This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.

===Key Words===

Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility

===题目===

机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？

===摘要===

科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。

===关键词===

人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合

===Introduction===

In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology.(He Liutao 2018,17)

Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on human to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique.(Liang Jie 2020,18)

Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” Toward this doubt, The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)

Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.

===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===

====2.1 Human Translation====

=====2.1.1 The Advantages =====

As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges.Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them have an encyclopedic knowledge. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

Thirdly, people have a capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

=====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====

However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result it causes a repetition of the same work they have done before.It is shown from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)

Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)

====2.2 Machine Translation====

=====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====

In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimum choice for many people.（Zhu Chaowei 2018,102）

Besides the adoption in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. "Translation headset" is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. "After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network)," said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. " Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).

With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has developed a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,21)

=====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====

Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation.(Liang Jie 2020,17)In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:

江雪

唐柳宗元

千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。

孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。

'''Version of Baidu Translation'''

River Snow

Birds flying away,

The trail of thousands of people;

A lone boat with a straw hat,

Fishing alone in cold river snow.

'''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''

Fishing in snow(Xu Yuanchong,2000)

From hill to hill no bird in flight,

From path to path no man in sight;

A lonely fisherman afloat

Is fishing snow in lonely boat.

Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty described in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may be puzzled about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)

Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meanings of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.

Example:

When Zhang San is sending money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please pay attention to the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,22)

领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)

张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)

领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)

张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)

领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)

张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)

领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)

Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology is always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

====3. Computer-Aided Translation====

To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to a half-automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====

=====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====

Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a "language database storing the original text and its translation". During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT is also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation.(Chen Yi 2018,31)

The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also produce corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).

=====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====

After stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator,it is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.(Chen Yi 2018,31)

Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation.(Global Encyclopedia)

Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).

=====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====

After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the number of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofreading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).

====3.2 Current Situation====

Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before.(Hua Fuwei 2015.8.5,Douban)

However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only store hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge an idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want.(He Liutao 2018,18)

Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, and thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person.(Yao Li 2020,202)

====3.3 Prospect====

Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation softwares. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)

===4. Suggestions===

Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the unstoppable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. There is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,108)

In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly pursued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”.(Qiu Cui, Chen Xue 2012,8)

At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperors, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick.(Qiu Cui & Chen Xue 2012,8)

In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the outbreaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they had lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts were intensified. Finally, the Revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down.(Qiu Cui,Chen Xue 2012,8-9)

Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this technology is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.(Liang Jie 2020,18）

In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. Similarly Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the deficiency of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are "985" universities and "211" universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pays much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period, most of our courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to CAT courses.(Lv Lisong & Mu Lei 2007,37)

This may resulted from the lack of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourages the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more teachers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has opened a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106-108)

===5. Conclusion===

Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

Human beings are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind is familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

While the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165).

In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth.

At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the computer-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

===References===

Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.

Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation "Fishing in Snow"] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.

He Liutao. 何刘涛.(2018) 人工智能背景下计算机辅助翻译在中国发展的思考[On the Development of Computer-aided Translation in China Under the Background of Artificial Intelligence] 英语广场[English Square], 17.

计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.

Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.

Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong. 罗华珍,潘正芹,易永忠. (2017) 人工智能翻译的发展现状与前景分析[Analysis of the Development and Prospect of Artificial Intelligence Translation] 电子世界[Electronics World], 21.

Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.

Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.

计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.

Qiu Cui,Chen Xue. 仇萃, 陈雪. (2012) 浅析中国的闭关锁国政策[On China's closed door policy] 现代物业[Modern property Management],8.

Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.

Xu Yuanchong. 许渊冲. (2000) 唐诗三百首[Translation of Three Hundred Tang Poems].

Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.

Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 102-108.

==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi MTI 英语笔译==

'''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''

英语笔译袁天翼

摘要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。

关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略

'''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

'''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation.

'''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies

'''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

'''I. Introduction'''

"The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English." (Reiss 2004,12).

"As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture".（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live.

'''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''

Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. "Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities."（Yang Yang 2020, 34）

Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? "Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)

Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.

Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”.

Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”.

Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”.

Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. "

Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, "Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs."

However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.

"In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation ."(Lv Hefa 2005,38)

“The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements in thirteen service fields. "Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication."(Wang Xunian 2020,69)

To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. "Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication ".(Pinkham John 2000, 156)

'''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''

'''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''

To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. "There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs."(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)

[[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&fm=27&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake.

Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.

A public sign in the Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads "Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor". More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake.

Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc.

No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads "The rockery danger, pleases no climb", whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”

First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, and this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it.

3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation

Knowing a little about English, and beginning to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate."Some common mistakes in public signs translation in daily life have brought a very bad impact on the image of the city; What's more, it will affect China's international image."(Zheng Yuguo 2020,138)

On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. "To understand the language style of Public signs in English, it is imperative to carry out idiomatic and standardized translation of public signs in Chinese."(Pang Yan 2020, 34)

No.4, this is a sign hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads "out of the cup area". It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine.

As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate.

Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that, a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!All those will bring big and standing jokes.

No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads" tourists get off area". Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run.

Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads "up the mountain". The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management.

No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads "more China, more fashion". At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”.

Once foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?

'''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''

It is just the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. "Errors and ambiguities in public signs are not allowed, as they can lead to disorientation, confusion, and lessening of the force of the warning."(Pan Xutong 2020, 251)

[[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8
[https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]

No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error.

[[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”.

[[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10
[https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public
sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve.

As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong.

Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”.

3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information

Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes."Standardized translation of public signs can improve the international language environment of cities, on the other hand, it is responsible for improving the level of urban opening to the outside world."(Liu Peiyu 2020, 67)

No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads " carefully hot". Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected.

[[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&fm=27&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean?

I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay.

[[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13
[https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch
your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners.

Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay.

Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”.

From so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. "As an important part of the translation industry, the translation of public signs has high academic value and research value."(Qian Zheng 2020, 191)

At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. "Due to the specific role of public signs, their translation is different from literary translation and has powerful functional characteristics."(Liu Hui 2020, 43)

IV. Public Sign Translation Methods

There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan 2015,44) maintains in her paper that, "the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds.

'''4. 1 Amplification'''

Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. "Public signs, as an important window for the external publicity of the city image, are increasingly valued in their English translation status"(Fu Li 2020, 123)

For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. "Public signs are information-type and calling-type texts, which should focus on the information transmission of the original text in translation. Therefore, communicative translation can be regarded as a good theoretical basis."(Shen Jianwen 2020, 69)

'''4. 2 Ellipsis'''

To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”.

'''4. 3 Re-translation'''

Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”.

'''4. 4 Backward Translation'''

Here are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”.
The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. "

'''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''

"Theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. "(He Xueyun 2006,57)

When doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. "To strengthen the research on the Translation of public signs into English, improve the translation quality of bilingual public signs and improve the translation of bilingual public signs are the urgent tasks to promote the cross-cultural communication of city image."(Niu Haihua 2020, 118)

'''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''

The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error.

“This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing.

One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes
“Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”

'''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''

One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning.

The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity.

'''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''

When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples.

“Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake.

'''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''

As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth.
For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail.

Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added.

'''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. "In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. To optimize the translation quality of public signs, the most important way is to realize the standardization of the translation of public signs."(Ding Ying 2020,78)

High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. "Public signs are the most common practical language in people's lives."(Gu Zhe 2020, 102)

At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. "Public signs have a strong linguistic function and social value. Pragmatic or social pragmatic failures caused by cultural differences often occur in the translation of public signs. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the cultural connotation of the original text in translation."(Li Jing 2020, 229)

High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China."The translation error of public signs is mainly due to the translator's lack of adequate understanding of the linguistic and cultural framework of English."(Guan Chen 2020, 79)

Internally, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. "It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image" .(Guo Jinghong 2019, 154)

In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. "The translation of public signs from Chinese to English needs to consider the actual situation of English speakers and abide by international uniform rules, so that foreign friends can directly understand the contents of public signs."(Song Yanbei 2020,64)

"The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication". (Yang Hongyu, 2019) Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go.

There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. "Only when the relevant departments attach great importance to public signs and the people cooperate closely, the translation of public signs can be solved and improved."(Li Huiwen 2020, 23)

'''VII. Conclusion'''

So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. "Whether there are standards and norms for translating public signs into English in public places has a direct impact on foreign friends' impression of a city, which directly reflects the degree of internationalization of the city."(Song Yanbei 2020 ,61)

Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. "It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures". (Liu Xiaoping, 2019)

A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream.

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History of Translation Studies 11

2020-12-19T08:24:53Z

Blank: /* Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi */

==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI ==
===Abstract===
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.

Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this chapter gives a detailed overview on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this chapter makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;

===摘要===
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。

===关键词===
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；

===Introduction===

When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.

When it comes to translation, this chapter argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Translation and Translation Study====

In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)

In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the discipline construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)

Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) While, translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30)

A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32)

Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the grammer rule of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34)

Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. Through translation practices, people summarize principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37)

Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choosing of words and sentences and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)

Fifthly, it must present an all-round explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====

Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104)

Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and full understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)

In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining and guiding social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.

Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, its external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.

===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===

Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theories came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards being systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.

====The Development of Western Translation Theory====

The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)

1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome

At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)

From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church was hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)

The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero from the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance

Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.

Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the stylistic characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, a representative of translators during this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance

The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period.

The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There were also many representatives in this period. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)

On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) They are: the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times

Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of the development of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in the process of translation. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)

Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. Firstly, do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while secondly, make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation proposed by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation, and making elaborations on them. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II

Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100)

During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

During this period, translations in commerce circles, diplomatic affairs, science and technology and other professional fields witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theories emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)

Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)

Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is the "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages in many aspects instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and he also discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====

The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)

1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties

The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theories. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189)

Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Being different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)

Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods were profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties

The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical.

The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, translation theories in this period were practical.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)

The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward the concept of "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949

The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.

The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great deal of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the same meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)

4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s

During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

====Similarities and Differences====

By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)

First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)

First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theories are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)

Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of human. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation to this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people.

The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)

Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between China and West in their translation histories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)

Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193)

After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the differences in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures have always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarities between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.

It can be reflected in the striking similarities between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents to be similar with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides are independent from each other, but they share some commonalities. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Reflections of Translations Methods===

====Domestication and Doreignization====

Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing.

Domestication and foreignization were proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29)

Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions to convey the content of the source language,which the target reader is accustomed to. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the foreign language features, and absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。

Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)

Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be used separately. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original texts, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)

This chapter holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====

In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarities between them have drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201)

The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)

The three principles of Tytler pose requirements on the translator in three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equal to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated the importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Free Translation and Literal Translation====

The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)

The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. Therefore, Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.

Literal translation refers to a complete representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, the English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions of the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should accurately reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

===Conclusion===

Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.

Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the differences between Chinese and Western way of thinking are universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of translation experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.

Translation has its own laws of development, which is proved by the similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this chapter proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.

Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation system, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences are more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

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==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center>

===Abstract===
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.

Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker, and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass, and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for descendants, including translations of literature and theory works. From the time line, the records of his translation activities are much earlier than his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:13, 16 December 2020 (UTC)徐梦蝶修改

===Key Words===
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent

===题目===
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想

===摘要===
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。

===关键词===
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺

===Introduction===
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)

It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation, and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.

About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation, hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation, as well as translation criticism.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

====Purpose of Translation====
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）

From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, translations of two categories have distinct purposes. （Chen 2000, 289）--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)

For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literary workers standing with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation with the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. From his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)

About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)

There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to be the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

====Free Translation and Hard Translation====
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)

The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept, literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)

In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me,(这里是自己翻译的原文吧，我觉得是不是可以附加上中文的原文？) there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)

In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. From Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)

There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and to introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammar, and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers when they treat foreign texts. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, the other purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.

====Retranslation====
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)

Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and the other is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not ideal, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance, retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied of my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303). " In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)

The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appear. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

====Translation Criticism====
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)

As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and highlight the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to rotten apples. As for previous methods, once there was anywhere rotten in an apple, people would discard it completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)

Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also be taken into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.

====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)

In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from “the survival of the fittest” advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

=====From the Perspective of Language=====
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)

In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese, and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change the original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and in vernacular Chinese with translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)

In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)

Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first (to march to a different drummer)? and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.

In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)

In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)

In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)

In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

===Conclusion===
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.

u Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation， as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that to enlighten Chinese people and to save the old China by learning from foreign literary works, promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.
(这里可以分两段)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

===References===
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.

==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==
===Abstract===
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars.

The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators.

In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.
===摘要===
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。

国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。

理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。
===关键词===
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation
===1 Introduction===
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement.

The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation.

In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break.
===2 Eco-translatology===
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.”

For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods.

What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text.

The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.

Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way.

Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.

Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)

===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively.

As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text.

What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.

What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)

===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.

However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one.

The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality.

From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.

Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation.

However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader.

Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work.

As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.

Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.

Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.

Flexibility.
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.

First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue.

The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience.

In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer.

Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-You don't have a violent bone in your body,
我知道你天性善良，
-I said,are you being a smartass?
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官
-Do my time... and get out.
服完刑...就走人
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.

Original and Translation:
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight.
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.

Original and Translation:
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.
有个律师在多管闲事
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.
对这种人不要心慈手软
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.

===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica.
有人要置他于死地，Veronica
-Something more is going on here.
这背后有阴谋
-This is desperation,Michael.
你是在孤注一掷，Michael
-You're grabbing at straws.
是想抓救命稻草
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw.

It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.

Original and Translation:
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing.
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left.

An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly.

Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph.

When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.

Original and Translation:
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon.

After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.

Original and Translation:
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)

Original and Translation:
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this.
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess.
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction.
你说的好像是交通违规似的。
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later.
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.

Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone.

But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.

Original and Translation:
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.

Original and Translation:
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。
-Is that the best you can do?
你就这么点能耐？
-all: Shut up!
闭嘴!
-Berwick: Not one more word!
谁也别出声！
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.
===4 Conclusion===
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place.

However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.

Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===References===
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.

[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).

[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.

[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).

[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).

[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).

[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).

[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.

==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==

===摘要===

随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。

本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。

===关键词===

生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译

===Abstract===

With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.

This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension.

===Key Words===

Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation

===1 Introduction===

As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology.

In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope.

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.

The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory.

===2 Literature Review===

Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(practices)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).

===2.1 Eco-translatology===

At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the(to be deleted)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback.

Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), researches(studies)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006).

As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction(directions)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11).

In order to provide some new(to be deleted)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).

Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text(texts)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52).

The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the(to be deleted)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78).

Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort(efforts), Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).

===2.2 Subtitle Translation===

Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a(an essential)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies.

According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features(language features of subtitle translation)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493).

2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the(to be deleted) films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247).

After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather(''Western Leather'')--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).

All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However(Moreover)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory.

===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===

Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the(to be deleted)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory.

According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles(principle)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.

In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze(analyzes them)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively.

Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, (focusing on)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world.

In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece(masterpieces)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions.

The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine(Ihe company)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.

The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere (in the world)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era.

In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions(, key points of Eco-translatology theory)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC).

===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically(grammatical)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.

Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。

TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.

It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(in)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion.

Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the(to be deleted)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.

Eg.2

ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘

TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.

In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse(various)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.

From the(to be deleted)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.

===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay (pay s[ecial)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.

As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference(differences)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC) or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.

Eg.3

ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。

TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication.

“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River(Yangtze River)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) . Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm.

After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River(Yangtze River)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.

In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into(to be deleted)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background.

Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary (achievements)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image.

Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that (people or)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.

Eg.4

ST: 科技普济天下。

TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.

This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, (which is)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.

From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad(broader)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.

===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or (or an) enterprise--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company.

In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information (information above)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.

Eg.5

ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。

TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.

This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a (an advertising video promoting)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children.

For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that(the)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before.

From those three examples(in the video)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely.

Eg. 6

ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。

TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.

In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated(target)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world.

From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they(to be deleted)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) conduct(conducting)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.

===4 Conclusion===

In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory.

With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release.

The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.

Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration.

From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise.

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='''Translation Theories'''=

==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center>
===Abstract===
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.

===Key words===
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory

===摘要===
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。

===关键词===
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史

===1. Introduction===
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)

===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)

====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An(314-385AD)
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO.
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.
② Translating the words of a saint.
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Huiyuan(334-416AD)
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengrui(371-438AD)
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengyou(445-518AD)
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Xuanzang(600-664AD)
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)

====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)

====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Yan Fu(1854-1921)
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Liang Qichao(1873-1929)
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lin Yutang(1895-1976)
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lu Xun(1881-1936)
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Ai Siqi(1910-1966)
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Fu Lei(1908-1966)
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===

====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：

Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)

====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)

(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.
④The basic level in translation is word.
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)

====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546)
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.
②The translator must know SL and TL.
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.
④The translator must use the common speech.
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：

(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.
Tytler set up three basic principles:
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)

====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：

(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）

(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).

(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）

===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

===5. Conclusion===
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.

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Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.

Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.

Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.

Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240

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Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.

Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.

==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==

<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center>
===Abstract===
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process.

Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories.

Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.

A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories are useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references from the practice of translation theories.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

===Key words===
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study

===题目===
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究

===摘要===
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。

刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。

对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55)

As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing on the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation into the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)

Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorist, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====

Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)

Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art are influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)

However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that to one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed for the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===

To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.

To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation theory, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understands what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different to study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)

In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)

The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation into the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examine the process of the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process of cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)

In China, There has also been a long debate about three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation are faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)

Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference between their time and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conducting linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one that doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful of this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)

Bell conforms to the definition of regarding translation as "the expression of another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)

As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product of paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)

His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even in the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)

As proposed in to the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definitions of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)

Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither delete nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37)

According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation are his efforts of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)

The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)

According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy about this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.

Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）

The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)

The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)

Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories about reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)

According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation methods. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)

According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy for words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impairs the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)

Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell brings in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent to different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions".

The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

《红楼梦》卷头诗

满纸荒唐言，

一把辛酸泪。

都云作者痴，

谁解其中味？

1.Liu Zhongde

The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions

Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,

Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,

People, one and all, call the author insane ,

But who understands how his words one should explain?

2. David Hawkes:

Pages full of idle words

Penned with hot and bitter tears

All men call the author fool

None his secret message hears.

3. 杨宪益：

Pages full of fantastic talk

Penned with bitter tears

All men call the author mad

None his message hears.

Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)

Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps:
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell,1991:61)

They can be presented as the extremes of five continua:
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell,1991:68)

Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)

Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intends to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)

Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas about the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently conveying the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)

In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how styles influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later are profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)

He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same functions so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)

Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)

Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest in the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

===3.Conclusion===
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.

Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.

By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics.

If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.

===Reference===
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Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).

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Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.

Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.

Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.

Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993.

Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.

==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==

<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center>
===Abstract===

Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses (''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses(''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.

===Key words===

dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di

===题目===
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect

===摘要===

自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。

===关键词===

动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达；金堤

===Introduction===

Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.

Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:

("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))

Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.

===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===

====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====

“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:

A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)

In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:

In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).

In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)

In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.

In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic.

"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.

====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====

Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)

When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:

In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)

This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:

The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).

In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).

In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.

In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).

Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:

The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).

In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.

===Similarities and Differences===
====Similarities between the Two Theories====
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.

==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====

What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.

=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====

“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.

Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）

-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)

The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:

“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).

Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message.

Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:

“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”

Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.

===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:

“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?

Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”

In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:

(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)

V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥，可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）

V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）

Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.

(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.

V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）

V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）

In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.

=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====

Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard.

However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree.

A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.

In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:

KJV:
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

TEV:
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)

NEB (The New English Bible):
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.

At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).

=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====

There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.

Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:

Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).

The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .

In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).

Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but

it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.

As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".

===Conclusion===

There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.

===References===

Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.

De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.

Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.

Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.

Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.

Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.

Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.

Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.

Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.

==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==

<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center>
===Abstract===
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.

===Key words===
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting

===题目===
翻译，笔译与口译

===摘要===
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。

===关键词===
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译

===1. Introduction===
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)

This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.

===2. Definition of Translation===
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.

First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.

===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.

====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)

Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)

Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)

====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)

===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)

Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)

====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.

====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====
(1) Differences in measurement criteria
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)

Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

(2) The difference of translation process
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).

Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

(3) Different requirements for interpreters
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:

①Psychological quality
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

②Listening
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.

③Memory and shorthand ability
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.

===6. Conclusion===
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.

===7. References===

*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.

*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.

*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.

*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.

*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.

*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.

*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].

*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.

*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.

*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].

*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.

==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588==

<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===

As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them.

During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu

===题目===

19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介

===摘要===

19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。

在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。

本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。

=== 关键字===

翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾

===Introduction===

The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

===Yan Fu===

1. Introduction

Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)

2. Translation Theory

Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4)

Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Case Analysis

Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)

Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)

Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)

Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)

Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)

Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory

Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Lin Shu===

1. Introduction

Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)

2. Translation Methods

Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(1) Omission

In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

(2) Addition

During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)

彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(3) Alteration

Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23)

日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)

Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(4) Adaptation

Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)

密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

3. Case Analysis

Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)

Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)

Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)

Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)

Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory

During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)

In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)

===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===

Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)

And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)

===Conclusion===

During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.

* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.

* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2.

* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.

* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.

* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.

* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.

* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.

* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.

* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.

* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.

* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.

* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.

* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.

* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.

='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=

==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center>

===Abstract===

Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.
[suggestion: "Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories.".(Here, this sentence can be changed into "Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories.)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===

Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler

===题目===

严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较

===摘要===

严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。

===关键词===

信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒

===1. Introduction===

In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)

In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.

===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===

Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.

====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)

“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)

In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)

====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====

Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9)

According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9)

The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)

===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===

Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)

====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====

The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career.

At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====

Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.

Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71).

John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)

It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.

===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===

====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====

Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground.

By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====

Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two.

=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)

=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====

Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics.

It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)

Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)

It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past.

Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning.

Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203)

Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)

However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)

From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.

=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====

Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.

=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====

When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)

However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks.

In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation.

In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.

===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself.

Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts.

Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.

However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.

===Conclusion===

This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same.

The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.

===References===

* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge.
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133.
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98.
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221.
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司.
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社.
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.

== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==

===Abstract===
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.

===Keywords===

Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences

===摘要===
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。

===关键词===

奈达；纽马克；相同；不同

===Introduction===

====Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====

At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）

=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====

Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese because it . Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence.

=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====

At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）

====Newmark====

Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）

Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）

The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Both Are Translatable=====

Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

In his About Translation, Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====

Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)

Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)

=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====

Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Different Definition of Translation=====

Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Nature of Translation=====

The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.

By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Translation Theories=====

The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====

Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====

When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====

Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===My Views on Their Theories===

Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)

However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)

===Conclusion===

There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===References===

*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press]
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill
*Peter·Newmark. (1991). About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd,
*Newmark, Peter. (1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)

==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==

<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center>

===Abstract===

Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.

===Keywords===

Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists

===题目===

西方翻译理论划分之研究

===摘要===

西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。

===关键词===

西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家

===Ⅰ.Introduction===

Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984: 9-15)

According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research.

Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction.

Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002)

Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century.

The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies.

The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will.

The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)

===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===

====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====

The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi,1991: 4)

=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====

The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9)

Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.

=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====

Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).

=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====

St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.

=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====

St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers.

He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.

====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====

Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.

=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====

Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979: 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.

=====2.2.2 Dante=====

Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.

====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====

The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.

=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====

Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public.

He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests.

In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)

=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====

Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists.

The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.

====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====

After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.

=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====

John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered.

Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.

=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====

Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work.

In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====

In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)

=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====

Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)

=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====

Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3).

He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined.

In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work.

His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.

=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====

Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.

====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====

After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress. The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields.

Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past. Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.

=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====

Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field.

There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.

=====2.5.2 John Catford=====

John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation.

He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford, 1965: 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation.

The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts.

The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times.

John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.

=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====

Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language. He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages. In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong,2000: 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong,2000: 67). Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.

=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====

James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.

=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====

Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation''(1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation''(1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.

===Ⅲ.Discussion===

The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation. They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure. It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===

We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.

===References===
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--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center>

===Abstract===
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.

===Key words===
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison

===题目===
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较

===摘要===
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。

===关键词===
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较

===1. Introduction===
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.

===2. Linguistic Foundation===
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools.

Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:

[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]

In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)

In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.

In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.

===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===

====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories.
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible.

As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)

In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.

====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.

In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.

===4. Significance===

====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

=====4.2 Influences in China=====
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different.

As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident.

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]

In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

====4.3 Limitations====
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.

===References===
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.

Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.

Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.

Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.

Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.

Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.

Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==

<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center> 写名字即可--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.

This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.

Ezra Pound was a representative poet and literary critic of the western literary scene in the early 20th century. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in the creation and study of poetry. At the same period, China was undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's theory of poetry is considered to be deeply influenced by Pound, but growing out of a specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from the comparison of their translation principles in terms of rhyme, image and structure.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound

===题目===
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究

===摘要===
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。

本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。

20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===
诗歌翻译理论；闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德
===I.Introduction===
1. Research Background

With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (孙党伯袁春正 1993（1），172-173). 引用的人名要用拼音--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need to recommend Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, a movement that deserves our attention is the vernacular literary movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in desperate need of opening up and learning from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (孙党伯袁春正 1993（12），432-433).

Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal experience of studying painting and his contact with western poets at that time are materials worth discussing.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.

These two figures are chosen for comparison in this paper because, first, they lived in the same period and both participated in two important literary movements of their time; second, both of them interpreted and applied traditional Chinese poems to modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, a comparison on their understanding of poetry translation is a way to learn the role of traditional Chinese culture in modern times and to better understand these two poets and translators.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Research Method

Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.

Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers about them. Through close reading, we come to understand their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. The works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles(孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），37).

Comparative study: since there are some commonalities between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in respectively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===II.Literature Review===
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.

Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:A.png]]

Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进 2005，133-134).

Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles have been published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing was a watershed moment, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo was a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he was inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:8.png]]

Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).

As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.

Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.

Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound in terms of a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====III.Discussion====
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (孙党伯袁春正 1993（1）,92).

Wen Yiduo was a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing the social and cultural upheaval of the collapse of the old and the rise of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he had revolutionary ideas at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't directly participate in the May 4th Movement, he demonstrated his firm support for the students through a passionate and patriotic poem. Obviously, Wen Yiduo's literary creation cannot be separated from his social ideas. This can be revealed in the subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas on translation, they are also closely associated with his understanding of poetry creation, based on his personal learning and experiences.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (孙党伯袁春正 1993（1），275-277).

Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. At first, he was a poet of classical poetry (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine''（松赋), ''Spring Willow''（春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to the creation of new poetry and criticized that classical poetry shouldn't be created and should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several attempts to create new poetry, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study in painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which was another transition for him. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, inspired partly by his experience studying painting and classical poetry in Chicago. Upon his return to China, he pioneered the creation of metrical poetry, linking the features of the new Western poetry with the image and structure of classical Chinese verse. He demanded beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. The best of his work to realize his principles can be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.

Ezra Pound had a same starting point of making translation, which was to find an answer for his own time and to solve the problems that existed in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social dilemmas brought about by industrialism, cyclical economic crisis, the segregation of people from one another, etc (蒋洪新 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poetry translation should be word-for-word but maintain connotations behind it. He identified the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and that classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all can be a good source for imagist movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），62).

In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman to a father and himself to his son. Although he held some different opinions from his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression and direct use of vernacular language, while relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo has also mentioned that he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolutely free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what words contained and only a concise expression like poetry can produce stronger emotions with its natural, artistic syllables.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation====
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平 2001,134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:

太阳辛苦了一天，
赚得一个平安的黄昏，
喜得满面通红，
一气直往山洼里狂奔。

This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），202).

Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his studies in painting at the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. These experiences provided him with the opportunity to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of the images based on his study of both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of creation of new poems, poems of nature made up a large part of his work. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images from classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. Therefore, he decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was influenced by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets used direct language and free verse to paint the world vividly. Images were important to the Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平 2001,134-135). Therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, Wen Yiduo paid great attention to the use of image and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have a short excerpt of his early composition:

太阳辛苦了一天，
赚得一个平安的黄昏，
喜得满面通红，
一气直往山洼里狂奔。

This excerpt was one of his early vernacular poems and it's very direct and daily, but lacking in beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea of liberating human mind with a literary revolution, but he still reinforced the importance of literary form (北塔 2011,105-106). Therefore, Wen Yiduo criticize Hu Shi's writing as lacking in beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that the translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing to traditional Chinese painting, where the interplay of colors creates a new harmonious picture, and words should be like colors.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生 2011,28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea.

Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candle''as an example, he used the image of red candle to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is considered to be a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is expressed not only in the subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he has shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather than western fine brush work (辛春生 2011,28-29). All of his principles in poetic composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mysterious one which also coincides with Pound's idea.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），62).

"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''

Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images.

Ezra Pound can be described as an orientalist for his love and study of eastern cultures. Before he became acquainted with Chinese, he was captured by the concise but rich connotation contained in traditional Chinese culture. His interest in traditional Chinese poems began with ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction to oriental art（郭为 1988,110). In the process of translating traditional Chinese poem, he formed his own principles of poem composing. He believed that poem should not be written with superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices in the use of images and he was known for his superimposition of images.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold."

This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').

This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images very well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is well used to paint a picture of late autumn and arouse feelings of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating to leave, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey abstract melancholy just like Chinese classical poem. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'', it has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color images. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 repeated words in the original poem but Pound only kept the repeated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his great attention to color image although he didn't mention it in his essay (''Cathy'').--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (孙党伯袁春正 1993（1），94).

Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to the use of images. Yet because of Wen Yiduo's experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we can assume that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choices for image based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），54).
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结 2014,611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.

Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was in school. Later deeply influenced by ideas of vernacular poem composition highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that he should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized that too direct expression would lose its hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of studying Tang poem. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, in his opinion, free verse is the best choice due to their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），54).
In his comments on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator of using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结 2014,611). He then put his belief in translation into practice in his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Sea Fever (1902)
by： John Masefield

I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,

And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,

And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,

And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.

I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide

Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;

And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,

And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.

I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,

To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;

And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,

And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.

我要回海上去

我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，

我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，

还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，

海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。

我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声

是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认

我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，

再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。

我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！

走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；

我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，

临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）

John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.

To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），54).

To maintain the characteristics of the original work, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou believed that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, in order to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into the Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.

Compared with the original version, we can find the translated version is even more concise and has clear rhythm to form music. To form a parallel structure and a clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to conform to both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are the words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between looseness and tense within the poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation.

Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on rhyme and rhythm in poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' for an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose rather than a rhymed poem, and to that extent his emphasis is more on the other side as he himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't make it a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sound is one of them. The poetry of sound could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he believed that images can be conveyed and he devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translation.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (闻一多 1926，1).

Thus we can see that rhyme and rhythm are as important to Wen Yiduo as images, for he considered these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feelings. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he had no preference between the two, yet, in Pound's view, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo valued music so much that he once said that some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language because he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient souls with decoration on a modern cover. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another vessel, they may lose their favor.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 05:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.

Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In a Station of the Metro
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛 2007，55-56).

This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasting colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳 2006，85).

Pound's poetic translation are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. It can be traced back to Provence love songs, Japanese Haiku and traditional Chinese poetry.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem.

Wen Yiduo was the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with traditional Chinese poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is considered as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well-composed poem.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Thursday
——Edna St. Vincent Millay

And if I loved you Wednesday,

Well, what is that to you?

I do not love you Thursday—

So much is true.

And why you come complaining

Is more than I can see.

I loved you Wednesday,

—yes—but what Is that to me?

礼拜四

即使我礼拜三爱你，

你管它做什么？

礼拜四我并不爱你，

却一点也不错。

我真不懂，你何为还

找着我来纠缠。

礼拜三我爱你—对—

可是那与我又何干？（　——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报文艺周刊》第9期）

This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(范守义 2004，101-102).

This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas on poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First of all this poem consists of two stanzas, in each of which the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but made a little alternation to achieve a better expression. In this line, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", in order to balance the length of sentences, the translator moved the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last line, "礼拜三我爱你—对—", to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is the line -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator split the line, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠".--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(范守义 2004，101-102).

Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza, but there is a dash to indicate it. Therefore, the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance of form as well as meaning. All these efforts of the translator aimed at achieving the aesthetic sense of architecture.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (孙党伯袁春正 1993（2），3).

In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound demand beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose with loose forms, but Wen Yiduo's translation highlighted the structural balance and stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.Conclusion====
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.

To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist has absorbed elements from traditional Chinese culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the superimposition of images. And as for his form of translation, it's looser than that of Wen Yiduo's, for although Ezra Pound required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" to be "balance". His order may exist in the location of his images but it does not have to be balance in numbers of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, even though Wen Yiduo was influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic features of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.

Based on the comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we can know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using in his later works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he was a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works had a solid patriotic foundation, thus he always tried to maintain traditional Chinese culture and spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their own unique cultural background and are both ardent lovers of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in their literary expressions, but there are also differences that reflect their own cultural identity like those we discovered in their own writings and translations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===V.Reference===
*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.英文文献后面需要添加中文--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste. ''Poetry''.
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.
*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China Foreign Affairs University'' 2004(04):98-107.
*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.
*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.
*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.
*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.
*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.
*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.
*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12
*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.
*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.
*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic
*Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.
*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.

==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==
彭丹 Peng Dan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学

===Abstract===
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.

===KEY WORDS:===
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response

===题目===
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究

===摘要===
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。

===关键词===

功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映

===1.Introduction===

====1.1Research Background====

Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.

====1.2Literature Review====

In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.

From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc..

In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.

====1.3Research Methodology====

1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.

2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application.

3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application.

4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.

===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===

====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist.

Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.

====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====

In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory.

The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.

The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.

The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.

The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.

Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”.

====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====

Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.

=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===

====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====

The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.

The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.

The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art.

Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.

Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.

After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.

====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====

Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers.

His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.

The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express.

Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling.

Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.

====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions====

Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring.

Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.

===4. A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions===

====4.1 A comparative Study on the meaning====

=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====

The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world’s objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word’s designative meaning.

There are some instances of the two versions of The Moon and Sixpence following.

Example 1: “All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris.”

Fu Weici’s version: “我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。”

Li Jihong’s version: “我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。”

In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people’s resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal.

Example 2: “It was about five years after this.”

Fu Weici’s version: “这件事过去大约五年之后”

Li JIhong’s version: “大概过了五年”

The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland’s experience and his life of persuading his dream.

In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn’t be referred in Li Jihong’s. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing.

Example 3: “The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature.”

Fu Weici’s version: “他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。”

Li Jihong’s version: “他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。”

The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn’t time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn’t control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong’s translation is better than Fu Weici’s. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words’ meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original’s language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn’t control.

=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====

The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language’s associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning’s expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.

Example 1: “Yes, she hadn’t a drop of white blood in her.”

Fu Weici’s version: “是的，一滴白人的血液也没有。”

Li Jihong’s version: “是的，她的身上没有半滴白人的血。”

It’s about the last journey of Strickland’s life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn’t touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici’s version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血，however in Li Jihong’s, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don’t think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong’s version is better than Fu Weici’s version.

Example 2: “Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him”

Fu Weici’s version: “思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。”

Li Jihong’s version: “思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。”

“桎梏” is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called “桎” when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called “梏” when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe “桎梏”. In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don’t understand the Chinese culture maybe can’t understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.

====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====

=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====

Example 1: “He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither.”

Fu Weici’s version: “像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。”

Li Jihong’s version: “他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。”

The “小羊” refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the “绵羊” is more specific. When it comes to “绵羊”， the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep’s fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong’s version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep’s character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland’s friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn’t show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people’s fear.

Example 2: “She was desire.”

Fu Weici’s version: “成了欲念的化身”

Li Jihong’s version: “她变成了欲望的化身。

The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren’t essential difference between the “欲念” and “欲望”. They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn’t give her any more birthright and he didn’t get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.

Example 3: “I don’t disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I’m interested in his mental processes.”

Fu Weici’s version: “我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。”

Li Jihong’s version: “我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。”

The main features of “蟒蛇” is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. “毒蛇” refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn’t feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland’s action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the “蟒蛇”. According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the “毒蛇” are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to “毒蛇” is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.

=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====

Example 2: “I will never have him in my house-never.”

Fu Weici’s version: “我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。”

Li Jihong’s version: “我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。”

Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says “I will never have him in my house-never”. Two repetition of “never” shows the Mrs. Stroeve’s firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.

====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====

=====4.3.1 The Culture, language and Translation=====

The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn’t constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.

In Eugene Nida’s perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn’t beyond the target language readers’ acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. “Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.” (Nida 1964:91)

===5. Conclusion===

====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====

Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong’s version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong’s version, the Fu Weici’s version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader’s preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter’s translation is more closed to modern readers’ reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits.

To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of The Moon and Six-pence and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.

====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====

As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of The Moon and Sixpence on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author’s personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.

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==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.

'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation

'''1. Introduction'''

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis.

The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.

Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies.

In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view.

In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''4. Findings from translation studies'''

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language.

Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage.

However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation.

In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.

I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated.

In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective).

Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。

⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。

⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。

⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。

'''7. Conclusion'''

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Bibliography:'''

[1] 川端康成『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.

[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.

[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.

[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.

[5] 森田良行『話者の視点がつくる日本語』ひつじ書房、2006年

[6] 籾山洋介・深田智「意味の拡張」松本曜編著『認知意味論』大修館書店

[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎『概念化と意味の世界』研究社、2008年

[8] 本多啓『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年

[9] 西口純代「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年

[10] ベルク，オギュスタン『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年

==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际

'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.

'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication

As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.

'''1 Introduction'''
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.

'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”.
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared.
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey).
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations.
'''5.2 Block Model'''
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”.
'''5.4 Integration Model'''
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.
'''7 Conclusion'''
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.
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