China Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]

20201228 cult

2021-01-08T02:43:28Z

Chen Jingjing: /* Chen Jingjing 陈静静 */

==Alsied, Saffana==
1.If we stop looking for “persons of superior morality” to put in power, there will be no more jealousies among the people. If we cease to set store by products that are hard to get, there will be no more thieves. If the people never see such things as excite desire, their hearts will remain placid and undisturbed.

如果我们不再寻找“道德高尚的人”上台，人民之间就不会再有嫉妒心了。如果我们停止使用难以获得的产品来存储，就不会有盗贼了。如果人们从未看到过激动的欲望，他们的内心将保持平静和不受干扰。--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 13:27, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

2.Master You said, “Those who in private life behave well towards their parents and elder brothers, in public life seldom show a disposition to resist the authority of their superiors. And as for such men starting a revolution, no instance of it has ever occurred. It is upon the trunk that a gentleman works. When that is firmly set up, the Way grows. And surely proper behavior towards parents and elder brothers is the trunk of Goodness?”

尤大师说：“那些在私生活中对父母和哥哥表现良好的人，在公共生活中很少表现出抵抗上级权威的倾向。对于这类发动革命的人来说，从未发生过这种情况。绅士在树干上工作。牢固地建立起来之后，方式就会发展。当然，对父母和哥哥的正确行为是善良的躯干吗？--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 13:27, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

3.As soon as he had written it, he left at once for his room; so nobody knew what he had done. In his room he again pondered: “When the Patriarch sees my stanza tomorrow and is pleased with it, I shall be ready for the Dharma; but if he says that it is badly done, it will mean that I am unfit for the Dharma, owing to the misdeeds in previous lives which thickly becloud my mind. It is difficult to know what the Patriarch will say about it!” In this vein he kept on thinking until dawn, as he could neither sleep nor sit at ease.

他一写完就立刻离开了房间。所以没人知道他做了什么。他再次在他的房间里思考：“当族长明天见到我的节并对它感到高兴时，我将为佛法做好准备。但是如果他说做得不好，那将意味着我不适合佛法，原因是前世的错误行为使我的思想蒙上了阴影。很难知道族长会怎么说！” 按照这种精神，他一直在思考直到天亮，因为他既无法入睡，也无法放松地坐着。--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 13:27, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

4.In contrast with man’s original innocence and perfection, a new element was introduced to explain his present imperfection, and that is of course the Devil, working chiefly through the body, while his higher nature works through the soul. When the “soul” was invented in the history of Christian theology I am not aware, but this “soul” became a something rather than a function, an entity rather than a condition, and it sharply separated man from the animals, which have no soul worth saving.

与人的原始天真和完美形成对照的是，引入了一个新元素来解释他目前的不完美之处，这当然是魔鬼，他主要通过身体运作，而他的高级天性则通过灵魂运作。当“灵魂”在基督教神学的历史中被发明时，我还不知道，但是这个“灵魂”变成了某种东西，而不是一种功能，是一种实体，而不是一种条件，它使人与动物急剧地分离了，而动物却没有值得保存的灵魂。

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 04:17, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

''Tao Te Ching'' is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 10:06, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

2.《论语》多为语录，但都辞约义富，有些语句、篇章形象生动。

The Analects are mostly discourses, but all of them are rich in diction and meaning, and some of them are vividly illustrated.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 04:17, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Analects'' are mostly discourses, but they are rich in diction and meaning, and some statements and chapters are vividly illustrated. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 10:06, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

3.《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

The ideas of The Sutra played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism. This is the only Chinese Buddhist work to be honoured as a 'sutra'.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 04:17, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

The ideas of ''The Sutra'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism. It is the only Chinese Buddhist work that has been honored as a "sutra". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 10:06, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

4.林语堂将中国人旷怀达观，陶情遣兴的生活方式，和浪漫高雅的东方情调皆诉诸笔下，向西方人娓娓道出了一个可供仿效的“生活最高典型”的模式。

Lin Yutang's writing brings to life the Chinese way of life, with its open-mindedness and optimism, as well as the romantic elegance of the East, and presents to Westerners a model of the 'highest form of life' to be emulated.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 04:17, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

Lin Yutang's writing brings to life the Chinese way of life, with its open-mindedness and optimism, as well as its romantic and elegant oriental style, and presents to Westerners a pattern of the "highest model of life" that can be emulated. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 10:06, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==

1.哲学上，“道”是天地万物之始之母，阴阳对立与统一是万物的本质体现，物极必反是万物演化的规律。

In philosophy, “Tao” is the mother of the beginning of all things in heaven and earth; the opposition and unity of yin and yang is the essence of all things; and the law of evolution of all things is the inverse of everything. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:39, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius gave different teachings to different subjects, taking their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their moral and spiritual development into consideration, demonstrating the valuable spirit of teaching others. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:39, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

3.根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。

According to the principle of “self-nature is pure”, the basic idea of “seeing one's own nature” and “sudden attaining enlightenment to become Buddha”is propagated. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:39, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

4.读书的目的并不是要“改进心智”，因为当他开始想要改进心智的时候，一切读书的乐趣便丧失净尽了。

The purpose of reading is not to “improve the mind”, for when he begins to want to improve the mind, all the pleasure of reading is lost. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:39, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
1.上善若水，水善利万物而不争。处众人之所恶，故几于道。

The highest good is like that of water. The goodness of water is that it benefits the ten thousand creatures；yet itself does not scramble，but is content with the places that all men disdain.

2.见贤思齐焉，见不贤而内自省也。

When we see a man of true virtue, we want to become like him. When we see an unethical man, we should look inwards and reflect on ourselves.

3.惠能曰：“人虽有南北，佛性本无南北；獦獠身与和尚不同，佛性有何差别？”

Although people from the south and people from the north differ, there is no south and north in Buddha nature. Although my barbarian's body and your body are not the same, what difference is there in our Buddha nature?

4.当然我们应该紧紧把握生活，因为它美妙得不可思议，充满了从上帝的每个毛孔里蹦出来的美。

Surely we ought to hold fast to life, for it is wondrous, and full of a beauty that breaks through every pore of God’s own earth.

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

1.When people see some things as beautiful, other things become ugly. When people see some things as good, other things become bad.

当人们将某些事物视为美丽时，其他事物则变得丑陋。当人们将某些事情视为好事时，其他事情则变得不好。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.In China, the work has been by many attributed to Confucius himself, but the philological investigations to date do not allow to go back to a reliable source, partly because of the devastating book burning of 213 BC by the First Emperor Qin Shi Huang.

在中国，许多人把这本书归功于孔子本人，但迄今为止的语言研究还不能追溯到可靠的来源，部分原因是秦始皇秦始皇于公元前213年毁灭性地烧毁了这本书。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.One realizes it, while another is ignorant of it.

一个人意识到了这一点，而另一个人则一无所知。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

有人意识到了这一点，但另一个人却对此一无所知。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:46, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.Perhaps I don’t understand economics, but economics does not understand me, either.

也许我不了解经济学，但经济学却不了解也了解我.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

我或许不懂经济学，但经济学也不懂我。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:46, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
1. 道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。

The Tao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Tao.

The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name.

2. 子曰：“学而时习之，不亦悦乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？”

The Master said, To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, is this not after all delightful? To remain unsound even though one's merits are unrecognized by others, is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman?

3. 菩提本无树，明镜亦非台。本来无一物，何处惹尘埃。

No such thing as the Budhi tree,

Nor a mirror stand that can be.

There is nothing in the first place,

Whereon can the dust and dirt creep?

4. 生之享受包括许多东西：我们本身的享受、家庭生活的享受，树木、花朵、云霞、溪流、瀑布，以及大自然的形形色色，都足以称为享受；此外又有诗歌、艺术、沉思、友情、谈天、读书等的享受，后者的这些都是心灵交流的不同表现。

The enjoyment of life covers many things: the enjoyment of ourselves, of home life, of trees, flowers, clouds, winding rivers and falling cataracts and the myriad things in Nature, and then the enjoyment of poetry, art, contemplation, friendship, conversation, and reading, which are all some form or other of the communion of spirits.
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The enjoyment of life includes many things: our own enjoyment, the enjoyment of family life, trees, flowers, clouds, streams, waterfalls, and all kinds of nature are enough to be called enjoyment; in addition, there are poetry, art, contemplation, the enjoyment of friendship, chatting, reading, etc., the latter are all different manifestations of spiritual communication.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.老子曾做过周朝守藏史，后退隐，作《道德经》，其思想的核心是“道”。

Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he retired from public life. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of Lao Zi's thought is "Tao".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he lived in seclusion. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of his thoughts is "Tao".--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before his retirement. Later he created the Tao Te Ching, of which the core thought is "Tao".--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》记录了孔子的言行。它涵盖了广泛的主题，从政治、哲学、文学和艺术到教育再到道德修养。

The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature to art,and from education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Analects recorded Confucius' words and deeds. It covers a wide range of topics, from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.惠能禅学思想的主要特点是“识心见性”和“顿悟成佛”。

The main features of Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are characterized by "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是一本洗涤心灵的书籍，是一杯好茶，是一种良药。阅读此书能使我们被尘沙玷污的心灵洗涤，使我们能在嚣闹的城市中得到宁静。

The Importance of Living is a book for washing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts polluted by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Importance of Living is a book for refreshing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can purify our hearts tarnished by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Importance of Living is a book that cleanses the mind, a cup of good tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts stained with dust and allow us to find peace in noisy cities--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, Tao Te Ching has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thought, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《慧能经》主张世上一切事物空幻不实，即对于现实世界不应执著或留恋。

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is empty and unreal, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is illusory, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周。

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book after his study in the United States, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
1、据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

According to the statistics made by UNESCO, Tao Teh Ching ranks the first in famous literatures in terms of circulation in foreign countries.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:04, 5 January 2021 (UTC)

2、孔子确立的仁的范畴，进而将礼阐述为适应仁、表达仁的一种合理的社会关系与待人接物的规范，进而明确“中庸”的系统方法论原则。

Confucius gave a definition to "仁(benevolence)" and futher explained etiquette as a standard of reasonable social relationships and intercourse which is accordance with "仁" and expresses "仁" ,and deeply specified the systematic principles of methodology of "moderation".--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:04, 5 January 2021 (UTC)

3、被尊为禅宗六祖的惠能大师，对中国佛教以及禅宗的弘化具有深刻和坚实的意义。

Master Huineng who is honored as the sixth patriarch of the Chinese ZEN Buddhism has made a profound and solid significance on Chinese Buddhism as well as the magnanimity of ZEN.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:04, 5 January 2021 (UTC)

4、林语堂将中国人旷怀达观，陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调皆诉诸笔下，向西方人娓娓道出了一个可供仿效的完美生活方式的范本、快意人生的典型。

Lin Yutang showed Chinese people's broad and optimistic mind, enjoyable and relaxed lifstyle as well as a romantic and elegant oriental tone in his writings, unhurriedly drawing a perfect, free and easy and available life model to the Western people.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:04, 5 January 2021 (UTC)

==Grosheva, Anna==

1. Yet mystery and manifestations arise from the same source. This source is called darkness.

然而神秘和表现来自同一来源。这种来源称为黑暗。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Started during the Spring and Autumn Period, the work of collection and organization of Confucian teachings was probably completed during the Warring States Period, although the precise date of publication of the complete work is unknown.

春秋时期开始，儒家教义的收集和整理工作可能是在战国时期完成的，尽管确切的出版日期尚不清楚。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Through ten chapters, the Platform Sutra cites and explains a wide range of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures.

在十章中，《纲经》引用并解释了大乘佛教经文。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. The ancient people who desired to have a clear moral harmony in the world would first order their national life.

希望在世界上建立清晰的道德和睦的远古民族首先会下定民族生活。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

1.《论语》是儒家的经典著作之一，它是对孔子及其弟子的言行和对话的记录。众所周知，孔子是一位伟大的思想家和哲学家，他的思想被发展成了的儒家哲学体系。《论语》是儒家思想的代表作，数个世纪以来，《论语》一直极大地影响着中国人的哲学观和道德观，它也影响着其他亚洲国家人民的哲学观和道德观。

The Analects of Confucius is one of the Confucius classics and is a record of the words and acts of Confucius and his disciples,as well as the conversations they held.It's
well known that Confucius is agreat ideologist and philosopher,and his thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophyknownasConfucianism.The Analects ofConfucius
is a representative work of Confucianism.For centuries, it has been heavily influencing the philosophy and moral outlook of Chinese people and that of the people of other Asian countries as well.

2.慧能的两个核心理念成为了正统佛教的精髓要义，其一，“无论社会阶层，无论精神文化，一切众生皆有佛性”；其二，“醒觉并非依靠冥想渐悟，而是一种瞬间的顿悟。”

His two key ideas became the essence of orthodox Buddhism, namely that "all people,regardless of their social, culturalor spiritual condition, possess the Buddha nature" and that "awakening is not a meditation but a sudden, instantaneous process."

3.一次，学生子贡问孔子：“有一言而可以终身行之者乎？”子曰：“其恕乎。己所不欲，勿施于人。”

Once,Zi Gong, one of Confucius’ disciples, asked the philosopher: “Is there any one word that can guide one throughout his life?”Confucius answered:“
Maybe it’s magnanimity! What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.”

Once upon a time,Zi Gong, a student of Confucius, asked him, "Is there one word that can be acted upon for life?" Confucius replied, "Its forgiveness. Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire."--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:52, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

"The Art of Life" is the first book created by Lin Yutang in the United States, and it is also another English work that has achieved success after "My Country and My People". The book was published in the United States in 1937, reprinted more than forty times, and translated into more than ten languages.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]]

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

1.小国寡民，使有什伯之器，而不用。使民重死，而不远徙。

Let there be a small state with few people,where military devices find no use; Let the people look solemnly upon death，and banish the thought of moving elsewhere.

2.子曰：“学而时习之，不亦悦乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？”

The Master said, To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, is this not after all delightful? To remain unsound even though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman?

3.慧能算得上是禅宗佛教中最受人尊敬的人物。他原以卖柴为生，顿悟后成为禅宗六祖，被认为是“顿”的创始人。

Hui-neng is perhaps the most beloved and respected figure in Zen Buddhism. An illiterate woodcutter who attained enlightenment in a flash, he became the Sixth Patriarch of Chinese Zen, and is regarded as the founder of the "Sudden Enlightenment" school.

4.生之享受包括许多东西：我们本身的享受、家庭生活的享受，树木、花朵、云霞、溪流、瀑布，以及大自然的形形色色，都足以称为享受。

The enjoyment of life covers many things: the enjoyment of ourselves, of home life,of trees, flowers, clouds, winding rivers and falling cataracts and the myriad thingsin Nature.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 05:53, 5 January 2021 (UTC)

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

1. Laozi in the Tao Te Ching explains that the Tao is not a "name" for a "thing" but the underlying natural order of the Universe whose ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe due to it being non-conceptual yet evident in one's being of aliveness.

《道德经》中的老子解释道是不是“事物”的“名称”，而是宇宙的内在自然秩序，由于其非概念性但在生命力中很明显，其最终本质很难被限制。

2. Analects is the China’s sacred book, the representative work of Confucianism. A collection of answers of dialogues between Confucius and his disciples.

《论语》是中国的圣书，是儒家的代表作。孔子与门徒之间对话的答案的集合。

《论语》是中国的圣书，是儒家的代表作。孔子与门徒对话的答案集。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Lin Yutang was a Chinese inventor, linguist, novelist, philosopher, and translator. His informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the West.

林语堂是中国发明家，语言学家，小说家，哲学家和翻译家。他的中英文不拘一格但又优美的风格使他成为这一代人中最有影响力的作家之一，他将经典的中国文字汇编和翻译成英文在西方是畅销书。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

1. The reasonable attitude is, since we’ve got this human nature, let’s start with it. Besides, there is no escaping from it anyway.

合理的态度是，既然我们具有这种人性，那么我们就开始吧

2. The Chinese go so far as to assume that Heaven of God Himself is quite a reasonable being, that if you live reasonably, according to your best lights, you have nothing to fear, that peace of conscience is the greatest of all gifts, and that a man with a clear conscience need not be afraid even of ghosts.

中国人甚至认为神自己的天堂是一个相当合理的存在，如果您按照自己的最佳生活合理地生活，您就没什么可担心的，良心安宁是所有礼物中最大的，并且一个有明确良知的人甚至不必惧怕鬼魂。

3. Plato thought “ideas” were immortal, but individual souls were either base or noble, according as they loved justice, learning, temperance and beauty or not.

柏拉图认为“思想”是不朽的，但根据他们是否爱正义，学习，节制和美丽，个体灵魂要么基本要么高尚。--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 01:53, 31 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Qian's mission to the West was intended to implement Emperor Wu's strategic intent of uniting the Yuezhi to fight the Xiongnu, but after his mission to the West, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Yi, and Chinese civilization spread rapidly in all directions through the Silk Road

2.郑和秉承“抚外夷以礼，导人向善”，的涉外原则，沿途将中国的历法文化、中国的衣冠礼仪等中华先进文化的传播，致使远夷之人仰慕中华文化，也使当地文明程度得以提升，由点到面地推动了人类社会的发展与文明的进程。

During his voyage, Zheng He adhered to the principle of "fostering foreigners with rituals and guiding them towards goodness" . He spread Chinese calendar culture, Chinese clothing and rituals, and other advanced Chinese culture along the way, which led to the admiration of foreigners for Chinese culture and the enhancement of local civilisation, contributing to the development of human society and the progress of civilisation.

3.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted foreign capitalist economic imports , it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 06:02, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries.

2.海上丝绸之路形成于汉武帝时期。南海航线从中国出发，向西航行，是海上丝绸之路的主线。

The maritime silk road was formed in the time of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty. The South China Sea route, which starts from China and sails westward, is the mainstream of the maritime silk road.

3.苏曼殊浪漫主义不是西学东渐的直接产物，而是固有文化生态发生结构变动之结果。

The formation of Su Manshu's romantic style was not the direct result of the eastward spread of Western learning but was the natural outcome of structural change in China's innate cultural ecosystem.

4.洋务派是中国近代最早的全面系统地接触近代科学技术的一个政治派别。

Advocates of the westernization movement was the first political school that touched modern science and technology comprehensively and systematically in China.

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"The Art of Living" was the first book created by Lin Yutang in the United States, and it is also another English work that has been successful since then. The book was published in the United States in 1937, and it ranked first in the United States bestseller list for 52 weeks in the following year,and has been republished more than forty times, and has been translated for more than ten languages.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

''The Art of Living'' was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks at the following year. Besides, it was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:20, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
1. 《道德经》的这一章一般被称为大顺。

This chapter of Tao Te Ching is usually being called Great Conformity.

2. 《论语》是张载人性论的思想来源之一。

The Analects is one of the thought resources of Zhang Zai’s anthroposophy.

3. 经慧可、弘忍等人的不断改造，禅宗于慧能时正式形成。

Through the works of Hui-ke and Hong-ren, Zen came into being in Hui-neng's time.

4. 只有抛弃固有模板，走出自己的人生道路，才能实现生活的重要性。

The importance of living can be achieved only by following your own path and not living life based on a template.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 06:15, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
1. 《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。、

Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》中保留了一些人们对孔子师徒的批评讽刺，有的作了辩驳，有的没有回答。

The Analects of Confucius retains some criticisms and ironies of Confucius' teachers and disciples, some of which have made refutation, while others have not.

The Analects of Confucius retains some criticism and satire of Confucius and his disciples, some of which are refuted, and some of which are not answered.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。

Huineng's Zen method is based on determining wisdom, thinking that awareness is inherent, but troubles are not.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 《活着》是作家余华的代表作之一，讲述了在大时代背景下，随着内战、三反五反，大跃进，文化大革命等社会变革，徐福贵的人生和家庭不断经受着苦难，到了最后所有亲人都先后离他而去，仅剩下年老的他和一头老牛相依为命。

Living is one of Yu Hua's representative works, which tells how Xu Fugui's life and family are constantly suffering with the civil war, the three anti-five evils, the Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolution and other social changes. In the end, all his relatives have left him one after another, leaving only an old cow.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
1.《道德经》九九八十一章，可理解为《道经》（上篇）和《德经》（下篇）两个部分，言简意赅、博大精深。大至宇宙、小至微尘，大无其外，小无其内；有修身、用人、治国。

The eighty-one chapters of the Tao Te Ching, which can be understood as two parts, the Tao Te Ching (upper part) and the De Te Ching (lower part), are concise and profound. It is as big as the universe and as small as the dust; there is no outside of the big and no inside of the small; there is the cultivation of the body, the use of people and the governance of the country.

2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects, one of the classics of Confucianism, is mainly a collection of essays in the form of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on the political, aesthetic, moral, ethical and utilitarian values of Confucius.

3.相传，有一位名叫慧能的砍柴夫，虽然目不识丁，却开创了佛教的南禅宗派，提出“人人皆有佛性”，进而确立“顿悟成佛”之学。

According to legend, an illiterate woodsman called Huineng founded the "Sudden Enlightenment" or the Southern Chan School of Buddhism and propounded the idea that everyone possesses "the Buddha nature."

4.生活是10%的经历，和90%的态度。我们无时无刻不在书写我们的生活经历，我们可以选择生活的台词。当下，我们可以放下自我怀疑、愤怒、沮丧。当下，我们可以选择幸福。

Life is 10% what happens to you and 90% how you interpret it and put it into perspective.Right now we're writing our life stories, and we can choose how the script will read. Right now we can put behind us self-doubt, anger, frustration. Right now, we can choose happiness.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Life is 10% experience and 90% attitude. Right now we're experiencing our life, and we can choose how to live. Right now we can put behind our self-doubt, anger, frustration. Right now, we can choose happiness.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:22, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
1、丝绸之路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。数千年来，游牧民族或部落、商人、教徒、外交家、士兵和学术考察者沿着丝绸之路四处活动。

The Silk Road is considered to be the ancient crossroads of eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, with Silk being the most iconic cargo. For thousands of years, nomadic peoples or tribes, merchants, religious, diplomats, soldiers and academic researchers moved around along the Silk Road.

2、郑和七次奉旨率船队远航西洋，航线从西太平洋穿越印度洋，直达西亚和非洲东岸，途经30多个国家和地区。他的航行比哥伦布发现美洲大陆早87年，比达·伽马早92年，比麦哲伦早114年。在世界航海史上，他开辟了贯通太平洋西部与印度洋等大洋的直达航线。

Zheng He was ordered to lead seven voyages to the Atlantic Ocean, with routes from the western Pacific Ocean across the Indian Ocean to West Asia and the east coast of Africa, passing through more than 30 countries and regions. His voyage was 87 years before Columbus discovered the American continent, 92 years before Da Gama, and 114 years before Magellan. In the history of world navigation, he opened up a direct route through the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean and other great oceans.

3、西学书籍的翻译和著述，是西学东渐相当重要的媒介，在当时出现了大量的由教士及士大夫合著合译的书籍，但这些书籍未能受到当时一般社会的重视，也未能打入晚明已十分发达的商业出版界，因此虽西学书籍有刻印出版，但主要仍仅流通于少数有兴趣的士大夫阶层。

The translation and writing of books on Western studies was an important medium for the gradual expansion of Western studies to the east. A large number of books co-authored and translated by clergy and scholars emerged at that time, but these books were not taken seriously by the general society at that time, nor did they penetrate into the commercial publishing world, which was already well developed in the late Ming Dynasty.

4、随着军事工业的创办，洋务派认识到，强大的国防基础在于整个国家经济的发展，要求能源、钢铁等工业与之配套。同时，为了维护民族利益，也必须发展民族经济，与洋人"商战"、"争利"。于是，他们提出了求富的口号，民用工业和新式交通运输业也发展起来了。

With the founding of the military industry, the School of Westernization realized that the basis of a strong national defense lay in the development of the entire national economy, requiring energy, steel and other industries to go along with it. At the same time, in order to safeguard national interests, it was also necessary to develop the national economy and to "negotiate" and "compete for profits" with the foreigners. Thus, they put forward the slogan of seeking wealth, and the civil industry and new transportation industry were developed.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1. 写于两千多年前的《道德经》是真正的精神文学经典之一。它是一个培养和平、宁静和同情的指南。
Written more than two thousand years ago, the Tao Te Ching is one of the true classics of spiritual literature. It is a guide to cultivating peace, serenity, and compassion.

The Tao Te Ching, written more than two thousand years ago, is one of the true spiritual literature classics. It is a guide to cultivate peace, tranquility and compassion.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》写于春秋战国时期（约公元前479年至公元前221年），被认为是儒家思想最具代表性的著作之一，至今仍对中国文化和东亚产生了重大影响。
Written during the Period of Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period (ca. 479 BC - 221 BC), the Analects are considered among the most representative works of Confucian thought, and still have a great influence on Chinese culture and East Asia.

3.慧能（638-713）也许是禅宗中最受人喜爱和尊敬的人物。他本是一个目不识丁的樵夫，却一下子获得了觉悟，成为中国禅宗的第六宗师，被誉为“顿悟派”的创始人。
Hui-neng (638–713) is perhaps the most beloved and respected figure in Zen Buddhism. An illiterate woodcutter who attained enlightenment in a flash, he became the Sixth Patriarch of Chinese Zen, and is regarded as the founder of the "Sudden Enlightenment" school.

4.生活的艺术是对现代世界令人眼花缭乱的节奏的一种讽刺、诙谐的解毒剂。
The Importance of Living is a wry, witty antidote to the dizzying pace of the modern world.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The art of living is an ironic and witty antidote to the dazzling rhythm of the modern world.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

1. 《道德经》是道家经典著作，在国内外影响巨大。这本书代表了世界轴心时代东方哲学的最高成就。上世纪，《道德经》大量翻译和出版，成为除《圣经》外翻译版本最多的著作。

As a classic of the Taoist, the Tao Te Ching exerts a significant influence both home and abroad. It represents the highest achievement of Eastern philosophy in the Axial Age of the world. In the last century, Tao Te Ching was translated and published successively, which makes it the most widely translated text except the Bible. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:40, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 孔子强调善良、责任和社会秩序的重要性。孔子的教育思想极大地丰富了人类的精神宝库。

Confucius stressed the importance of kindness, duty and order in society. Education thought of Confucius has greatly enriched the treasure house of the human spirit. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:40, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 慧能是禅宗南宗的创始人，南禅宗是中国佛教的典型代表。慧能在菩提树下曾作一首诗：“菩提本无树，明镜亦非台．本来无一物，何处惹尘埃。”

Huineng was the founder of the South-Zen, which was the model representative of Chinese Buddhism.Once upon a time, he made a poem under the bodhi tree:" there is no bodhi tree, mirror nor stand. Original none thing, where the dust alight."--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:40, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 在林语堂的散文理论中，“幽默”、“性灵”、“闲适”是其三个重要概念。林语堂是现代文学史上一位重要的理论家，他在翻译文本中建构着自己作为族裔散居者的跨文化身份。

In Lin Yutang's prose theory, "humor", "formal personality", "leisureliness and comfort" is its three important concepts. In modern literary history, Lin Yutang is an important theoretician and forms his cross-cultural identity as a diaspora in his translation text.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:40, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.

Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。

The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The traditional Silk Road started in the ancient Chinese capital of Chang'an, and reached the Mediterranean through Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc., ending in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the intersection of the ancient Eastern and Western civilizations connecting Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative goods.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。

The East Sea Route, also known as the "Eastern Sea Silk Road". During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。

Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism to a certain extent, it did not make China prosperous and strong.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 《道德经》是中国古代哲学著作。又称《老子》，被道教作为重要经典收入道藏。共81章，分上、下篇。此刻通行本上篇言道，下篇言德。其中有不少和生活有关的处世哲理。

Tao Te Ching is an ancient Chinese philosophical work.Also known as Laozi, Taoism as an important classic into the Collection of Taoism. A total of 81 chapters, divided into the first and second. At this moment, the first text of the passage, the next text of virtue.There are a lot of life related philosophy.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2 《论语》，是孔子弟子及再传弟子记录孔子及其弟子言行而编成的语录文集，成书于战国前期。全书共20篇492章，以语录体为主，叙事体为辅，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations compiled by Confucius and his disciples to record their words and deeds. It was written in the early period of the Warring States Period. The book consists of 20 chapters, with quotations as the main body and narration as the auxiliary body, which mainly reflects the political propositions, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and The Confucian school.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3 慧能俗姓卢，原籍河北范阳（今北京大兴）。他的父亲贬官到了岭南新州（今广东新兴），生下了慧能。慧能年轻时父亲去世，家境贫寒，靠打柴卖柴来养活母亲。

Hui Neng was born in Fanyang, Hebei province (now Daxing, Beijing).His father moved to New South Wales in the Lingnan region and gave birth to Huineng. When Huineng was young, her father died and her family was poor, so she sold firewood to support her mother.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4 林语堂早年留学美国、德国，获哈佛大学文学硕士，莱比锡大学语言学博士。回国后在清华大学、北京大学、厦门大学任教。1945年赴新加坡筹建南洋大学，任校长。曾任联合国教科文组织美术与文学主任、国际笔会副会长等职。

Lin Yutang studied in the United States and Germany in his early years. He received his MA from Harvard University and his PhD in Linguistics from the University of Leipzig.After returning to China, he taught in Tsinghua University, Peking University and Xiamen University. In 1945, he went to Singapore to establish Nanyang University and became its president.He has served as director of Fine Arts and Literature of UNESCO and vice President of the International Pen Association.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

1.《道德经》内容涵盖哲学、伦理学、政治学、军事学等诸多学科，被后人尊奉为治国、齐家、修身、为学的宝典。它对中国的哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深远的影响，体现了古代中国人的一种世界观和人生观。

Tao Te Ching covers philosophy, ethics, political science, military science and many other disciplines, and is respected as a treasure of governing the country, regulating the family, cultivating self-cultivation and learning. It has a profound influence on Chinese philosophy, science, politics and religion, and embodies a world outlook and outlook on life of ancient Chinese.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成。

The content of the Analects of Confucius involves politics, education, literature, philosophy and the truth of life. As early as the Late Spring and Autumn Period when Confucius set up a lecture platform, its main content had been initially created--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。

The text mainly records Huineng's life story and teachings. According to the theory of "self nature is pure", it advocates the basic ideas of "find one’s ture self" and "insight into Buddhism". The thought of ''Tanjing'' played an important role in the development of Zen.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.本书是一种私人的供状，供认我自己的思想和生活所得的经验。我不想发表客观意见，也不想创立不朽真理。我实在瞧不起自许的客观哲学。

This book is a personal confession of my own thoughts and experiences. I don't want to be objective and create immortal truth because I really despise the objective philosophy of self promise.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。

The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.

As the most abstract conceptual category in Tao Te Ching, "Tao" is the source of power for the creation of heaven and earth.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:21, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.

3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。

If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.

If you want to practice, you can get it at home, so you can't help but stay at the temple.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。

The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion. According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most translated and published cultural masterpiece in foreign languages, except for the Bible.

2.《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成。

The Analects covers politics, education, literature, philosophy, and the principles of living in the world. The main content of the Analects was first created as early as the late Spring and Autumn Period when Confucius set up a forum to teach.

3.禅宗六祖惠能大师的思想不仅影响了整个中国，而且传播到世界各地。西方学术界把六祖惠能大师与孔子、老子并誉为“东方三大圣人”。

The ideas of the Sixth Patriarch of Zen Buddhism, Master Huineng, have not only influenced the whole of China, but have also spread throughout the world. Western scholars regard Master Huineng as one of the "Three Great Sages of the East" along with Confucius and Laozi.

4.生命的意义经常与哲学、宗教的存在、意识（自觉）、幸福等概念交集在一起，还会涉及到其他的一些领域，如象征符号、实体论、价值、目的、道德、善与恶、自由意志（自愿）、上帝观、神的存在、灵魂、来世等。

The meaning of life is often intertwined with philosophical and religious concepts of existence, consciousness (self-awareness), and happiness, and will involve other areas such as symbolism, substantivism, value, purpose, morality, good and evil, free will (voluntariness), the concept of God, the existence of God, the soul, the afterlife, etc.

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

1-道德经，也被称为老子或老子，是中国传统文字，传统上被认为是公元前6世纪的圣人老子。文章的作者，撰写日期和编辑日期受到争议。

The Tao Te Ching, also known as Lao Tzu or Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.

The ''Tao Te Ching'', also known as Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2-《论语》约写于公元前500年，传统上归功于孔子。这段文字是由他的学生们在他去世后三十到五十年的时间内写的。

The Analects, were written about 500 BC and are traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his students over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.

''The Analects'', was written about 500 BC and was traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his disciples over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Analects'', was written in about 500 BC and was traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his disciples over a period of time spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3-大建会能，又称禅宗第六祖或禅宗第六祖，是中国禅宗早期历史中的半传奇人物，但却是中心人物。根据传统，他是一个没有受过教育的外行，在听到《金刚经》后突然醒悟。

Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Chan, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Chan Buddhism. According to tradition he was an uneducated layman who suddenly attained awakening upon hearing the Diamond Sutra.

Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Zen, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Zen Buddhism. According to the tradition, he was an uneducated layman who suddenly awakened upon hearing the contents of ''Diamond Sutra''.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4-林语堂是中国发明家，语言学家，小说家，哲学家和翻译家。他的中英文不拘一格但又优美的风格使他成为这一代人中最有影响力的作家之一，他将经典的中国文字汇编和翻译成英文在西方是畅销书。

Lin Yutang was a Chinese inventor, linguist, novelist, philosopher, and translator. His informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the West.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 07:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
1、据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

According to UNESCO, ''the Tao Te Ching'' is the most widely translated cultural masterpiece in foreign languages after the ''Bible''.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、孔子是当时社会上最博学者之一，在世时就被尊奉为“天纵之圣”“天之木铎”，更被后世统治者尊为孔圣人、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣文宣王先师、万世师表。

Confucius was one of the most famous scholars in the society at that time. He was honored as "the sage of Heaven" and "the Wooden priest of Heaven" when he was alive. He was also honored as the sage of Confucius, the most holy, the most holy Teacher of Confucius, the most holy Master of Dacheng, the king of Wenxuan and the master of all ages by later rulers.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。

The sutra mainly records Huineng's life story and his teachings. According to the theory of "self-nature is pure and pure", it advocates the basic idea of "seeing nature with clear heart" and "becoming Buddha with enlightenment".--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来兮辞》，讲解了《圣经》故事，以及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月等等。

Lin yutang talked about in the book zhuangzi's indifferent, praised tao yuanming's leisurely, read the "I'm going home!", explained the bible stories, and how the Chinese tea, how do drinkers' wager game, how to view mountain, how to play water, how to look at the cloud, how to guide, how to grow flowers, birds, snow, rain, song of the wind, to month, and so on.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

1. Zhang Qian’s missions to the Western Regions led to the opening of the Silk Road.

张干对西部地区的访问导致了丝绸之路的开通。

2. They traded Chinese silk, porcelain and tea with local inhabitants in return for jewelry, spices and medicines.

他们与当地居民交换中国丝绸，瓷器和茶，以换取珠宝，香料和药品。

3. Matteo Ricci also drew many world maps, the most popular of which, “Great Universal Geographic Map”, was printed and published by Li Zhizao (1565-1630) in the 13th year of Emperor Wanli’s reign (1602).

利玛窦也绘制了许多世界地图，其中最流行的是“大通用地理地图”，由李治造（1565-1630）在万历三年（1602）出版并出版。

4. After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense.

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便建立现代国防。--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
1.法律制度是治国者统治人民的工具，是统治者为了保障自身的利益与维持社会秩序建构的国家机器，所以老子极力反对这些措施与法令制度。

The legal system is the ruler's tool for ruling the people, and is the state machine constructed by the ruler to protect his own interests and maintain social order. Therefore, Laozi strongly opposed these measures and decrees.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》是中国读书人的基础语言，并影响着全社会的思维结构。中国文化是儒、道、佛三教的合流，但是，这三教在中国文化中的地位决不是三足鼎立的，儒家文化绝对是中国文化的主流，从汉代开始，它就是无可争议的主流意识形态。

The Analects is the basic language of Chinese scholars and influences the thinking structure of the whole society. Chinese culture is an amalgamation of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. However, these three religions are by no means a triumvirate in Chinese culture; Confucianism is definitely the mainstream of Chinese culture, and it has been the undisputed dominant ideology since the Han Dynasty.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.在我国佛教的发展历史上，惠能可以说是影响最大的高僧。南北朝初期达摩祖师入中土，开创禅宗。

In the history of Buddhism in China, the Huineng can be said to be the most influential monk. At the beginning of the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Dharma entered China and started Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》一书，是汇集了许多中西思想家的思想, 再经过林语堂深思熟虑，书写自己的观念与真理的书。

''The Art of Living'' is a book that brings together the thoughts of many Chinese and Western thinkers, and then, after Lin Yutang's careful consideration, he writes his own concepts and truths.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==

1.虽然丝绸之路是沿线各国共同促进经贸发展的产物，但很多人认为，中国的张骞两次通西域，开辟了中外交流的新纪元。从此，这条路线被作为“国道”踩了出来，各国使者、商人、传教士等沿着张骞开通的道路，来往络绎不绝。

The Silk Road is the product of joint economic and trade development of countries along the route, but many people think that Zhang Qian’s traveling to the West for two times launched a new era for China and foreign exchanges. Since then, this route was deemed as “international route” as envoys, merchants and missionaries came and went along the route opened by Zhang Qian.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.通过海上丝绸之路，中国还传播着民族工艺和儒道思想，对"海上丝路"沿线国家和地区以及欧洲各地产生不同程度的影响，甚至掀起了"中国热"。其中，瓷器和茶叶对世界有着很大的影响。

China spread its national craft, Confucianism and Taoism through the Maritime Silk Road, impacting countries along the route and European regions of varying degrees and even created “China fever”. Among them, porcelains and Tea have great influence upon the world.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。

Because of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people faced the fate of losing their country and families. Thus many scholars started to learn from western countries more positively and comprehensively, and a number of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a great amount of knowledge of natural science and social science and asked political reforms.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。京师同文馆、上海广方言馆以及江南制造局的译书馆，是当时翻译西方的中心。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

During the 35 years of The Westernization Movement, the development of culture and publishing reached an unprecedented level. The Tongwenguan in Beijing, the Guangfangyanguan in Shanghai and the Yishuguan of the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau were the center of translating western works. The translation of books has gone through a process from purely Western scientific and technical works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences and humanities, with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。

When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.

2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”

It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。

After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.

4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。

The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
1.据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most widely translated and published cultural masterpiece in foreign languages, except for the Bible.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:52, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects, one of the classics of Confucianism, is a collection of essays in the form of discourses and dialogues, which mainly record the words and actions of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral, ethical and utilitarian values.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:52, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3.慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。

Huineng's Zen method is based on the principle of determination and wisdom, which holds that consciousness is inherent and worries are not.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:52, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.人类的智慧对宇宙开始在发出疑问，探索它的秘密，而寻觅它的意义。

Human wisdom began to question the universe, to explore its secrets, and to search for its meaning.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:52, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
1.《道德经》内容涵盖哲学、伦理学、政治学、军事学等诸多学科，被后人尊奉为治国、齐家、修身、为学的宝典。它对中国的哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深远的影响，体现了古代中国人的一种世界观和人生观。

The Tao Te Ching covers philosophy, ethics, political science, military science and many other disciplines, and is revered by later generations as a treasured text for ruling the country, for the family, for cultivating oneself and for learning. It has had a profound influence on Chinese philosophy, science, politics and religion, and embodies a kind of worldview and outlook on life of ancient Chinese people.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:21, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects, one of the classics of Confucianism, is a collection of prose in the form of discourses and dialogues, which mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on the political, aesthetic, moral, ethical and utilitarian values of Confucius.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:21, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

3.《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

The ideas of the Tanjing played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism. This is the only Chinese Buddhist work that has been honored as a "sutra".--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:21, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

The Importance of Living was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the United States to devote himself to writing, and it was also another successful work in English after Our Country and Our People. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than ten languages for worldwide distribution.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:21, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 《道德经》主要论述“道”与“德”：“道”不仅是宇宙之道、自然之道，也是个体修行即修道的方法；“德”不是通常以为的道德或德行，而是修道者所应必备的特殊的世界观、方法论以及为人处世之方法。
Tao Te Ching mainly discusses "Tao" and "de": Tao is not only the way of the universe and nature, but also the way of individual practice, that is, the way of cultivating Tao; "de" is not usually thought of as morality or virtue, but a special world outlook, methodology and way of dealing with people.

The Tao Te Ching focuses on "Tao" and "De": "Tao" is not only the way of the universe and nature, but also the way of individual cultivation, i.e., monasticism. "Virtue" is not what is commonly thought of as morality or virtue, but rather the special worldview, methodology, and approach to the world that a monk should have.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:30, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

2. 《论语》是孔子及其弟子的语录结集，由孔子弟子及再传弟子编写而成。孔子开创了私人讲学的风气，相传他有弟子三千，贤弟子七十二人。孔子去世后，其弟子及再传弟子把孔子及其弟子的言行语录和思想记录下来，整理编成了儒家经典《论语》。
The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations from Confucius and his disciples, which was compiled by Confucius and his disciples. According to legend, Confucius had seventy-two disciples and created a private atmosphere of teaching. After the death of Confucius, his disciples and his disciples recorded the words, deeds, quotations and thoughts of Confucius and his disciples and compiled them into the Confucian classic The Analects of Confucius.

The Analects is a collection of quotations from Confucius and his disciples, written by his disciples and re-disciples. Confucius started the culture of private lectures, and it is said that he had 3,000 disciples and 72 virtuous disciples. After the death of Confucius, his disciples and re-disciples recorded the quotations and thoughts of Confucius and his disciples, and compiled them into the Confucian classic "Analects".--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:30, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

3. 《道德经》主张世上一切事物空幻不实，“实相者则是非相”，认为应“离一切诸相”而“无所住”，即对于现实世界不应执著或留恋。
Tao Te Ching claims that all things in the world are illusory and unreal, and that those who are real are non real. He thinks that they should be "separated from all aspects" and "have no place to live", that is, they should not be persistent or nostalgic about the real world.

The Tao Te Ching advocates that all things in the world are empty and unreal, and that "those who are real are not real", and that one should be "free from all appearances" and "have no dwelling", i.e. one should not be attached to the real world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:30, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

4. 科学家假设生命的意义是可决定的，透过了解宇宙运作的规则，人类是可能了解生命的意义，但不能解析生命潜在价值所在。科学的价值在于，一方面能够提供更多的工具与方法使得人类对问题有更深的了解；但另一方面，科学的发展与社会的进步、人类智慧的演化发展是不同步的，即客观存在与主观能动性永远存在差距。
Scientists assume that the meaning of life is determinable. By understanding the rules of the operation of the universe, it is possible for human beings to understand the meaning of life, but they cannot analyze the potential value of life. The value of science lies in that, on the one hand, it can provide more tools and methods to enable human beings to have a deeper understanding of problems; on the other hand, the development of science is not synchronized with the progress of society and the evolution and development of human wisdom, that is, there is always a gap between objective existence and subjective initiative.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

Scientists assume that the meaning of life is determinable, and through understanding the rules of the universe, it is possible for humans to understand the meaning of life, but not the potential value of life. The value of science is that, on the one hand, it can provide more tools and methods to enable human beings to have a deeper understanding of problems; but on the other hand, the development of science is not synchronized with the progress of society and the evolution of human intelligence, i.e., there is always a gap between objective existence and subjective initiative.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:30, 3 January 2021 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
1. 《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion. According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most translated and published cultural masterpiece into foreign languages, except for the Bible.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成。

The Analects covers politics, education, literature, philosophy, and the principles of living in the world. As early as the late Spring and Autumn period, when Confucius set up a forum to teach, the main content of the Analects was already in its infancy.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《六祖坛经》记载惠能一生得法传法的事迹及启导门徒的言教,内容丰富,文字通俗,是研究禅宗思想渊源的重要依据。

The Sutra of Hui-neng is a richly written account of Hui-neng's life and teachings of his disciples, also working as an important basis for studying the origins of Zen’s thought.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 读书使人得到一种优雅和风味，这就是读书的整个目的。读书并不是要“改进心智”，若是如此，一切读书的乐趣便丧失净尽了。

4. Reading gives one a grace and flavor, and that is the whole purpose of reading. Reading is not to "improve the mind"; if it were, all the pleasure of reading would be lost.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Reading gives people an elegance and flavor, which is the whole purpose of reading.Reading is not meant to " improve the mind "; if so, all the pleasure of reading is lost.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
1.老子说：“上善若水”-—水具有最高的善。老子以水来作比喻，突出他的“不争”哲学思想，与恶意争斗的丛林法则相区别。

1.The highest good is like water, according to Laozi. By making a comparison with water, the ancient philosopher stressed the idea of “not to strive” which stands in stark contrast with the law of the jungle marked by malicious rivalry.

2.孔子修史书，编纂《春秋》，整理古代文献，在文化的继承和发扬上有着卓越的贡献。孔子去世后，弟子们将他的言论编成了《论语》一书。孔子修史书，编纂《春秋》，整理古代文献，在文化的继承和发扬上有着卓越的贡献。孔子去世后，弟子们将他的言论编成了《论语》一书。

2.Confucius revised history books, wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, and organized ancient texts, which contributed to the development of the Chinese culture. After his death, his students collected his sayings into a book:''the Analects of Confucius''.

3. 道可道,非常道;名可名,非常名.

3.The way that can be told of is not an unvarying names;The names that can be named are not unvarying names.

4.林语堂(1894—1976)，原名玉堂，福建省龙溪县人。现代散文家、小说家，曾留学美国、德国，获哲学博士学位。1922年回国后，在北京大学、北京女子师范大学任教。曾是鲁迅主持的《语丝》撰稿人。

4.Lin Yutang (1894 -- 1976), formerly known as Yutang, was born in Longxi County, Fujian Province.He is a modern essayist, novelist, and has studied abroad in the United States, Germany, and a doctor in philosophy.After returning to China in 1922, he taught in Peking University and Beijing Women's Normal University.He used to be a writer of Threads hosted by Lu Xun.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.老子认为世界上的任何事物都是相比较而存在的。美丑、善恶、有无、难易、长短都是相互依存的，有此才有彼，有是才有非，有善才有恶。表面看来，正相反对的两个方面是相互对立的，而实际上又是相互包含、相互渗透的。

1.Laozi believes that everything in the world exists by comparison. Beauty and ugliness, good and evil, existence and existence, difficulty and difficulty, length and length are interdependent. There is one and there is another, there is yes and there is no, there is good and there is evil. On the surface, the two opposite aspects are opposite, but in fact they are mutually contained and permeated.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》既是语录体又是若干断片的篇章集合体。这些篇章的排列不一定有什么道理；就是前后两章间，也不一定有什么关联。而且这些断片的篇章绝不是一个人的手笔。

2.The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations and fragments. The arrangement of these chapters does not necessarily make sense; Even between the two chapters, there is not necessarily a connection. And these fragmentary passages are not the work of one man.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

3.毛泽东还谈到过惠能的思想在佛教史上的地位。他说，惠能主张佛性人人皆有，创顿悟成佛之学，一方面使繁琐的佛教简易化，一方面也使从印度传入的佛教中国化。因此，他被视为禅宗的真正创始人。

3.Mao Zedong also talked about the position of Huineng's thought in the history of Buddhism. He said that Huineng advocates that everyone has the Buddha nature and creates the theory of enlightenment to become a Buddha, which, on the one hand, simplifies the tedious Buddhism and, on the other hand, makes the Buddhism introduced from India Chinese. Therefore, he is regarded as the real founder of Zen.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.林语堂早年已立志发明“中文打字机”。当时科学严谨的汉字检索系统仍未建立起来；又由于汉字本身是符号文字而非字母文字，长期以来人们对制成中文打字机的可能性多持怀疑态度。

4.In his early years, Lin yutang aspired to invent the "Chinese typewriter". At that time, the scientific and rigorous Chinese character retrieval system had not yet been established. Because Chinese characters are symbolic characters rather than alphabetic characters, people have long been skeptical of the possibility of making Chinese typewriters.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:14, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion . According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most popular translated and published cultural masterpiece in foreign languages, except for the Bible.

2.《论语》中的第一句话就是“学而时习之，不亦说乎？”可见，孔子狠强调学用结合、学以致用、言行相符。

The opening sentence of The Analects of Confucius says, “It is indeed a pleasure to acquire knowledge and, as you go on acquiring, to put into practice what you have acquired.” From here we see that Confucius emphasized the integration of learning with application and the consistence of words and actions.

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

The sutra mainly records Huineng's life story and his teachings. The ideas of the Tanjing played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism. This is the only Chinese Buddhist work that has been honored as a "sutra".

4.1939年，林语堂在美国纽约的世界笔会上发表了一篇《希特勒与魏忠贤》的演讲。他说，当今德国人有人把希特勒比为耶稣，由此他想起中国明朝有一位读书人倡议一说，称颂魏忠贤与孔夫子应当有同样的地位。

In 1939, Lin Yutang made a speech entitled “Hitler and Wei Zhongxian” at a PEN meeting held in New York City. reminded him of a Chinese scholar of the Ming Dynasty, who advocated that Wei Zhongxian, the then dictatorial chief palace eunuch, be ranked as equal of Confucius--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xie Fan 解帆==
1.《道德经》的“道”不仅是宇宙之道、自然之道，也是个体修行的方法；“德”不是通常以为的道德或德行，而是修道者所应必备的特殊的世界观、方法论以及为人处世之方法。

According to Tao Te Ching, Tao is not merely the truth of the universe and nature, but of individual spiritual practice; "Te" is not morality or virtue which are usually thought of as, but a special world outlook, methodology and way of getting along with people and dealing with things.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:39, 1 January 2021 (UTC)

2.孔子去世以后，他的弟子和再传弟子对他的言论代代相传，并将这些口头语录记录下来，因此称为“论”；《论语》主要记载孔子及其弟子的言行，因此称为“语”。

After the death of Confucius, his disciples passed on his and their speech from generation to generation, and gradually recorded those oral quotations, that's why it is called "Lun"; the Analects mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, so it is called "Yu".--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:39, 1 January 2021 (UTC)

3.《慧能经》富含着丰富的教学艺术。如明喻、暗喻、诘问、解决以学习者为中心的问题策略等教学艺术对当代教学仍有重要的启示。

The Sutra of Hui-neng is rich in resources of teaching art.Such art of teaching as simile and metaphor,cross-examination and learner-centered problem solving tactics still hold important implication for the contemporary teaching.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:39, 1 January 2021 (UTC)

4.林语堂将中国人旷怀达观，陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调皆诉诸笔下，向西方人娓娓道出了一个可供仿效的完美生活方式的范本、快意人生的典型，展现出诗样人生、才情人生、幽默人生、智慧人生的别样风情。

Lin Yutang describes the Chinese people's broad-minded and optimistic life style and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment in his works. He provides Westerners with a model of perfect life style and a typical happy life, showing a different style of poetry, talent, humor and wisdom.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:39, 1 January 2021 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.《道德经》主要论述“道”与“德”：“道”不仅是宇宙之道、自然之道，也是个体修行即修道的方法；“德”不是通常以为的道德或德行，而是修道者所应必备的特殊的世界观、方法论以及为人处世之方法。

Tao Te Ching mainly discusses "Dao" and "De" : "Dao" is not only the way of universe and nature, but also the method of individual cultivation; "De" is not the morality or virtue as commonly thought, but the special world view, methodology and way of dealing with people that a monastic should have.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects, one of the Confucian classics，is a collection of quotations and essays, which records the words and deeds of Confucius and his students. It embodies Confucius' thoughts in politics, aesthetics, moral ethics and utilitarianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

The Sutra of Huineng, the only one Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", contributes a lot to the development of Zen.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Sutra of Hui-neng, the only Chinese Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来辞》，还讲解了《圣经》故事，谈及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月，等等。

In his book, Lin talked about the unworldliness of Chuang Tzu, praised the leusure of Tao Yuanming，and read one of Tao's prose named On Returning Home. He also explained the stories of the Bible, talked about how the Chinese people taste tea,play drinking games, watch mountains and waters, observe clouds and rocks, raise flowers and birds, enjoy the snow, listen to rain, and enjoy the air and the moon.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

In the book, Lin Yutang talks about Zhuangzi's indifference, praises Tao Yuanming's leisure, reads the song of returning home, and explains the story of the Bible. He talks about how Chinese people drink tea, how to drink, how to watch mountains, how to play with water, how to see clouds, how to learn from stones, how to raise flowers, keep birds, watch snow, listen to rain, recite wind, and play with the moon, and so on.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
1.丝绸之路全程，从西安经安西、喀什噶尔、撒马尔罕和塞流西亚，直至推罗，直线距离是4200英里，如果加上沿途绕弯的地方，总共约有6000英里，相当于赤道的四分之一。

The Silk Road runs from Xi'an through Anxi, Kashgar, Samarkand and Seleucia to Tyre at a straight distance of 4200 miles, or about 6000 miles, or a quarter of the equator, if combined with the curving.

2.海上丝绸之路是指古代中国与世界其他地区进行经济文化交流交往的海上通道。2000 多年前，一条以中国徐闻港、合浦港等港口为起点的海上丝绸之路成就了世界性的贸易网络。

Maritime Silk Road refers to ancient China and the rest of the world for economic and cultural exchanges of the sea channel.More than 2000 years ago, a maritime Silk Road, which started with ports such as China's Xuwen Port and Hepu Port, became a worldwide trading network.

3.随着西学大举东来，国内知识分子的大力鼓吹，使得妇女问题开始受到社会的重视。

With the western learning coming to the east in a large scale, the domestic intellectuals advocated vigorously, so that women's issues began to receive social attention.

4.自全球化进程不断加快以来，中国教育已无可避免地成为世界教育的一部分。西学的存在,对我国教育界的认识论和理论体系，带来了什么挑战和启示呢?

Since the accelerating process of globalization, China's education has inevitably become a part of the world's education.What challenges and enlightenment does the existence of western learning bring to the epistemology and theoretical system of education in China?
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
1.唐代，因皇帝与老子同姓李氏，故大力提倡道教，设置崇玄学，令生徒论习《道德经》。

In the Tang Dynasty, the emperor and Lao Zi shared the same surname, Li, so he strongly advocated Taoism, set up the worship of metaphysics, and ordered students to study Tao Te Ching and Taoist scholars.

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

The Analects of Confucius shows the political propositions, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and The Confucian School.

''The Analects of Confucius'' shows the political propositions, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and its School.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 16:42, 1 January 2021 (UTC)

3.慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。

Hui-neng's Zen method is based on meditation and wisdom, believing that there is awareness instead of worry.

Huineng's Zen attaches great importance of meditation and wisdom,holding views that one is born with awareness rather than worries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:44, 1 January 2021 (UTC)

4.林语堂先生在该书中将旷怀达观，陶情遣兴的中国人的生活方式，向西方人娓娓道出了一个可供仿效的"生活最高典型"的模式，

In this book, Mr. Lin Yutang fully conveys the life style of the Chinese people, and describes to westerners a model of "the highest model of life" that can be followed.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 05:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
1.以“道”解释宇宙万物的演变，即“道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物”，“道”乃“夫莫之命而常自然”，因而“人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然”。

He used "Tao" to explain the evolution of all things in the universe, that is, "Tao generates one, two, two generates three, three generates all things", "Tao" is "Fu Mo's life is always natural", so "man follows earth, earth follows heaven, heaven follows Tao, Tao follows nature".--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成;孔子去世以后，他的弟子和再传弟子代代传授他的言论，并逐渐将这些口头记诵的语录言行记录下来。

The content of the Analects of Confucius involves politics, education, literature, philosophy and the truth of life. As early as the late spring and Autumn period when Confucius set up an altar to give lectures, its main content had been initially created; after Confucius died, his disciples and his disciples taught him his words from generation to generation, and gradually recorded these oral quotations, words and deeds.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。直接契证觉性，便是顿悟。他说自心既不攀缘善恶，也不可沉空守寂，即须广学多闻，识自本心，达诸佛理。

Huineng's Zen is based on Dinghui. He thinks that consciousness is there and worry is not. The direct evidence of consciousness is epiphany. He said that the self mind should neither climb up to good and evil, nor sink into silence. That is to say, it is necessary to learn a lot, to know the self mind, and to reach all Buddhist principles.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.只有快乐的哲学，才是真正深湛的哲学；西方那些严肃的哲学理论，我想还不曾开始了解人生的真义哩。在我看来，哲学的唯一效用是叫我们对人生抱一种比一般人较轻松较快乐的态度。——林语堂《生活的艺术》

Only the philosophy of happiness is really profound philosophy; I don't think those serious western philosophical theories have begun to understand the true meaning of life. In my opinion, the only effect of philosophy is to make us have a more relaxed and happy attitude towards life than ordinary people. ——The Importance of Living by Lin Yutang--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

幽默大师林语堂以人生优游者的独特视角，诠释中国人“生活的艺术”，展现出诗样人生、才情人生、幽默人生、智慧人生的别样风情。

Humorist Lin Yutang interprets the "importance of life" of The Chinese people from a unique perspective of a good traveler in life, showing a unique style of poetic life, talented life, humorous life and intelligent life.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:40, 29 December 2020 (UTC)

慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。

Huineng's Zen method is based on meditation and wisdom, believing that there is awareness instead of worry.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:40, 29 December 2020 (UTC)

《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。

The contents of ''The Analects of Confucius'' involves politics, education, literature, philosophy and the principles of life.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:40, 29 December 2020 (UTC)

《道德经》对中国的哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深远的影响，体现了古代中国人的一种世界观和人生观。

''Tao Te Ching'' has had a profound impact on Chinese philosophy, science, politics and religion, reflecting an ancient Chinese world view and outlook on life.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:40, 29 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.天下皆知美之为美，斯恶已；皆知善之为善，斯不善已。
It is because every one under Heaven recognizes beauty as beauty that the idea of ugliness exists. And equally if every one recognized virtue as virtue this would merely create fresh conceptions of wickedness.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.有朋自远方来，不亦说乎？
Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quaters?--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Isn't it your pleasure to welcome your friends coming far from you?--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:24, 29 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。
The Sutra of Huineng mainly recorded life stories and teachings of Huineng. The thoughts in it played an important part in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适。
Ling Yutang talked about Zhuangzi’s indifference to fame and wealth, and spoke highly of Tao Yuanming’s leisure.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
道德经是中国古代先秦诸子分家前的一部著作，是道家哲学思想的重要来源。
Tao Te Ching, a work of the pre Qin scholars in ancient China before the separation of hundreds of schools, is an important source of Taoist philosophy.
论语作为儒家经典的《论语》，其内容博大精深，包罗万象
As a Confucian classic, the Analects of Confucius has a broad and profound content
惠能俗家姓卢，其父早亡，家境贫困，惠能以卖柴奉养母亲。
Huineng's common family name is Lu. His father died early and his family is poor. Huineng supports his mother by selling firewood.
林语堂的文风有别于左翼作家所主张之战斗的文风，而是站在高于现实处，以自由主义精神写“热心冷眼看人间”的智慧文章。
Lin Yutang's style of writing is different from the fighting style advocated by the left-wing writers. Instead, he stands above the reality and writes intelligent articles with the spirit of liberalism.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 16:57, 6 January 2021 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。

Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。

Although Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Region was originally for military purposes, after the opening of the Western Region, its influence far exceeded the military scope.

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和"海上香料之路"。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Maritime Spice Road".

3.徐光启毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。

Xu Guangqi devoted his life to the research of science and technology and wrote diligently. He was an active promoter of introducing and absorbing European science and technology, and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.

4.曾国藩治军把选将作为第一要务，他说，“行军之道，择将为先。”他的选将标准是德才兼备，智勇双全，而把德放在首位。

Zeng Guofan regards the election of generals as the first priority. He said, "The wisedom to march is to choose warriors first." His selection criteria is to have both ability and political integrity, wisdom and courage, and morality is the first priority.
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 04:14, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。

In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。

The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响.

"Tao De Jing" is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, religion, etc.

"Tao De Jing" is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion, etc.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》，是孔子弟子及再传弟子记录孔子及其弟子言行而编成的语录文集，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

"The Analects of Confucius" is a collection of quotations compiled by Confucius and his disciples to record the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, which more concentratedly embodies the political views, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.

''The Analects of Confucius''is a collection of quotations compiled byConfucius' disciples and their retransmitters to record the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, which more concentratedly embodies the political views, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《坛经》是禅宗的主要经典之一,主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教.

The Tantra is one of the main Zen classics, mainly recording the life deeds and teachings of Huineng.

The ''Tantra'' is one of the main classics of Zen , mainly recording the life deeds and teachings of Huineng.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，中等文化的读者都能看懂，这也是他探索的结果。

Lin Yutang's translation features are easy to understand and can be understood by readers of intermediate culture. This is also the result of his exploration.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Lin Yutang's translation is characterized by its fluency and comprehensiveness, which is also the result of his exploration.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

1. 《道德经》文本以哲学意义之“道德”为纲宗，论述修身、治国、用兵、养生之道，而多以政治为旨归，乃所谓“内圣外王”之学，文意深奥，包涵广博，被誉为万经之王。

The text of the Tao Te Ching is based on the philosophical meaning of "morality", and discusses the ways of cultivating oneself, ruling the country, using military force, and nurturing one's health, while mostly focusing on politics.

2. 《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects of Confucius, one of the classics of Confucianism, is a collection of essays mainly in the form of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, focusing on the political, aesthetic, moral, ethical and utilitarian values of Confucius.

3. 《坛经》是中国僧人撰写的著述中唯一被冠以“经”的一部佛教典籍，其核心思想是“即心即佛”、“顿悟成佛”。

The Tantras are the only Buddhist texts written by Chinese monks that are labeled as "sutras", and their core idea is "the mind is Buddha" and "enlightenment is Buddha".

4. 1965年底，林语堂就与香港中文大学校长李卓敏谈到他终生的抱负，即编纂一部适应现代需要的汉英词典。

By the end of 1965, Lin Yutang was talking with the president of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Li Zhuo Min, about his lifelong ambition to compile a Chinese-English dictionary adapted to modern needs.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 16:38, 1 January 2021 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。

The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1.老子生于春秋战国时期，当时的环境是周朝势微，各诸侯为了争夺霸主地位，战争不断。严酷的动乱与变迁，让老子目睹到民间疾苦，作为周朝的守藏史，于是他提出了治国安民的一系列主张。

Laozi was born in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. At that time, the Zhou Dynasty was in a weak state. As the official historian of Zhou Dynasty, Lao Zi put forward a series of propositions of governing the country and keeping the people safe.

2.作为儒家经典的《论语》，其内容博大精深，包罗万象，《论语》的思想主要有三个既各自独立又紧密相依的范畴：伦理道德范畴——仁，社会政治范畴——礼，认识方法论范畴——中庸。

As a Confucian classic, the Analects of Confucius has a broad and profound content and is all-embracing. The thoughts of the Analects of Confucius mainly consist of three independent and closely related categories: ethical and moral category -- benevolence, social and political category -- rites, and cognitive methodology category -- the doctrine of the mean.

3.慧能偈曰：
菩提本无树，明镜亦非台。
本来无一物，何处惹尘埃？

My stanza read:
There is no Bodhi-tree,
Nor there’s a mirror bright.
Since all is void in fact,
Say, where can dust alight?

4.幽默大师林语堂以人生优游者的独特视角，诠释中国人“生活的艺术”，展现出诗样人生、才情人生、幽默人生、智慧人生的别样风情。

Lin Yutang, a humorist, interprets the "art of life" of The Chinese people from the unique perspective of a good traveler in life, showing a unique style of poetic life, talented life, humorous life and intelligent life.
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

1.《道德经》是中国古代先秦诸子分家前的一部著作，是道家哲学思想的重要来源。

1.The Tao Te Ching is a work before the division of pre-Qin scholars in ancient China, and is an important source of Taoist philosophy.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》以语录体为主，叙事体为辅，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2.The Analects is mainly based on the quotation style, supplemented by the narrative style, which more concentratedly reflects the political propositions, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

3.The scriptures mainly record the life deeds and teachings of Huineng. According to the theory of "self-nature is pure", it promotes the basic idea of "understanding the mind and seeing the nature" and "understanding to become a Buddha". The idea of "Tan Sutra" played an important role in the development of Zen. This is the only one that is honored as the "Sutra" in Chinese Buddhist works.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂将中国人旷怀达观，陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调皆诉诸笔下，向西方人娓娓道出了一个可供仿效的完美生活方式的范本、快意人生的典型，展现出诗样人生、才情人生、幽默人生、智慧人生的别样风情。

4Lin Yutang appealed to the Chinese people's open mindedness, Tao Qingqianxing's lifestyle and romantic and elegant oriental sentiment, and he presented a model of perfect lifestyle and a model of happy life that can be imitated to Westerners. Shows the unique style of poetic life, talented life, humorous life, and wise life.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC).

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

《道德经》与中医渊源颇深, 其中许多论点与中医理论有相通之处。

Tao Te Ching is deeply connected with Traditional Chinese medicine, and many of its arguments have something in common with Chinese medicine theories.

《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行。

The Analects is one of the classic works of Confucianism. It is a collection of opinion records of prose writings, mainly in the form of quotations and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples.

《坛经》是佛学中国化、大众化最为成功的典型之一。

The Sutra of Hui-neng is one of the most successful representative of sinicization and popularization of Buddhism.

其实,生活于我无意义,快乐地过好每一天最为重要。应该说,这种感受得益于林语堂的《生活的艺术》一书。
In fact, while life is meaningless, what matters to me is leading a happy life everyday. This comprehension should be credited to the The Importance of Living written by Lin Yutang. --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:34, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
1.《道德经》不仅在中国影响深远而广泛，而且漂洋过海，传遍了世界五大洲，深受外围人的青眯，引起浓厚的学习兴趣和研究热情。他们赞誉《道德经》为“东方智慧的结晶”。当代西方流行广泛的一句话，就是老子是国际性的，目前研究老子思想已成为一种国际性的文化现象。

''The Tao Te Ching'' not only has a far-reaching influence in China, but also has spread all over the five continents of the world. They praised''the Tao te ching'' for the “crystallization of Eastern Wisdom. A popular saying in the west today is that Laozi is international, and the study of Oigo’s thought has become an international cultural phenomenon.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

''Tao Te Ching'' not only has exerted a far-reaching influence in China, but also has spread all over the five continents of the world. They praised''Tao te ching'' for the “crystallization of Eastern Wisdom. A popular saying in the west today is that Laozi is international, and the study of Laozi’s thought has become an international cultural phenomenon.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 04:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为儒家最经典和最受欢迎的著作，《论语》不仅是中国传统最核心的作品之一，而且是中国人伦理道德标准和行为准则的核心。《论语》中蕴含的儒家思想是中华民族的宝贵财富。自从16世纪末以来，《论语》被中西方学者源源不断地翻译，并且传播到世界各地。

As the most classical and popular works of Confucianism, ''the Analects'' is not only one of the core works of Chinese tradition, but also the core of Chinese ethical standards and codes of conduct. The Confucian thought contained in ''the Analects'' is the precious wealth of the Chinese nation. Since the end of the 16th century, ''the Analects'' has been continuously translated by Chinese and Western scholars and spread all over the world.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《慧能经》不仅是研究惠能思想的重要资料,而且是具有中国特色的佛教禅宗一派的重要经典,在中国佛教思想史、哲学史上具有深远的影响。

''The Sutra of Huineng'' is not only an important material to study Huineng’s thought, but also an important classic of Zen Buddhism with Chinese characteristics. It has a far-reaching influence on the history of Chinese Buddhist thought and philosophy.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是一本与你畅谈如何听风赏月的家常闲聊，又是一本关乎生活态度甚至生活智慧的严肃论文。林语堂从生活、家庭、文化、旅行、思想、宗教等方面探讨人必须学会享受生命。

''The Importance of Living'' is a book about how to feel the wind, enjoy the moon. It is also a serious essay about life attitude and even life wisdom. Lin Yutang analyzed from the aspects of life, family, culture, travel, thought, religion and so on. Then he drew a conclusion that people must learn to enjoy life.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
1.《道德经》的语言非常讲究艺术性，运用了多种修辞方式，使词句准确、鲜明、生动，富有说理性和感染力。

The language of ''Tao Te Ching'' is very artistic and uses a variety of rhetorical methods to make words and sentences accurate, clear, vivid, rational and appealing.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

2.《论语》反映了孔子的教育原则。孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

''The Analects'' reflects the educational principles of Confucius. Confucius taught in accordance with his aptitude, considering his different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of pursuing his ethics, and giving different teachings to different objects, showing his tireless and precious spirit.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

3.毛泽东还谈到过惠能的思想在佛教史上的地位。他说，惠能主张佛性人人皆有，创顿悟成佛之学，一方面使繁琐的佛教简易化，一方面也使从印度传入的佛教中国化。

Mao Zedong also talked about the position of Huineng's thought in the history of Buddhism. He said that Huineng advocated that everyone has Buddha nature, and to create the learning of enlightenment and Buddhahood, on the one hand, it simplified the tedious Buddhism, on the other hand, it also made the Buddhism introduced from India sinicized.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

4.《生活的艺术》一书，是汇集了许多中西思想家的思想在经过林语堂熟思滤过写来自己的观念与真理的书。

''The Importance of Living'' is a book that brings together the ideas and truths of many Chinese and Western thinkers who have been filtered through Lin Yutang's thinking.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201221 cult

2020-12-27T12:15:22Z

Chen Jingjing: /* Chen Jingjing 陈静静 */

==Alsied, Saffana==
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，大月氏逃走了，却仍然对匈奴怀恨在心。这时，汉朝变得越来越强大，汉武帝决定攻打匈奴。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。

3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West.

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面把天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作引入中国。同时，他们把中国的儒家和道家思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便建立现代国防。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。

The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。

During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。

Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。

The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

1.丝绸之路不仅是古代亚欧互通有无的商贸大道，还是促进亚欧各国和中国的友好往来，沟通东西方文化的友谊之路。

The Silk Road is a commercial avenue for exchanges between Asia and Europe in ancient times as well as a road of frienndship that promotes friendly exchanges between Asian and European countries and China.

2.在群星璀璨的中华英杰中，郑和不但以先于西方人航海，胜于西方人的航海技术受到国际社会的关注，而且以其所代表的一种文化精神得到人们的关注。

Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He not only got the attention for his sailing sills which precended and surpassed Westerns, but also attracted people's attention with the cultural spirit he represented.

3.西学东渐意味着以西方之学术，灌输于中国，使中国日趋于文明富强之境。

The eastwars spread of western learning means instilling in China with Weastern academics so as to make China more civilized and prosperous.

4.处于传统国家和农业文明体系下的中国在面对经过资产阶级革命后的现代国家和工业文明的英国的挑战时显得不堪一击。

Under the traditional agricultural civilization system, China was such vulnerable to the challenges from England, which was already a modern and highly industrilized country after the bourgeois revolution. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。

A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

A vast batch of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road enable this long trip to be one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。

An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。

From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。

Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the guidance of the Han scholars with modern thinking, people learned the science and language of the west opened special schools in some big cities. Armouries, factories and docks were also built with reference to Western models.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。

Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。

Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Eastward World Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times when western academic thoughts spread to China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
1、张骞出使西域这一历史事件具有特殊的历史意义。张骞对开辟从中国通往西域的丝绸之路有卓越贡献，至今举世称道。

Zhang Qian’s westward travel is of historic and special significance in Chinese history. Zhang Qian made excellent contributions to the opening of the Silk Road from China to “The Western Regions”, which is even praised by today’s world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、陆路是中西往来的最古老的通道，其主要工具是马和骆驼。但牲畜负载有限，费用巨大。此外沿途自然条件艰险，安全没有保障。所以当航海技术发展起来以后，海路在中西交通中所起的作用越来越重要。

Land route is the oldest access between China and“The Western Regions” and the major transportation tools were horses and camels. However, the load of those livestock was limited and cost much. Besides, the natural environment along the land route was hard and dangerous, making travelers lost security assurance.Therefore, with the development of seamanship, sea route began to play an increasingly important role in the communications between China and “The Western Regions”. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、明万历年间，随着耶稣会传教士的到来，对中国的学术思想有所触动。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。当时中国一些士大夫及皇帝接受了科学技术上的知识，但是在思想上基本没有受到影响。

During Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, as the coming of Jesuit missionaries in China, Chinese academic thought was slightly effected by western thought. At the same time of the spreading of Christian doctrines by those missionaries, a large amount of science and technology was introduced into China. Back then, Chinese emperor and some officials accepted knowledge of western science and technology,but their thought didn’t be influenced by the knowledge.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动进行30多年虽然没有使中国富强起来，但洋务运动引进了西方先进的科学技术，使中国出现了第一批近代企业，在客观上为中国民族资本主义的产生和发展起到了促进作用。

The westernization movement which lasted for over 30 years did not make China become richer or stronger, but it introduced the advanced western science and technology which stimulated the emergence of the first modern enterprises, objectively promoting the emergence and development of Chinese national capitalism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。

The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.

The Silk Road was an ancient crossing between Asia and Europe. Its starting point is generally considered to be Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). In fact, it changes with the change of the political center of dynasties. Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), Luoyang, Pingcheng (present-day Datong), Wei Liang (now Kaifeng), Beijing has been the starting point of silk road.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。

The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。

Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。

The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。

Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。

Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。

Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Eastward Spread of Western Learning starting from the 17th century accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。

The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The historical role of the foreign affairs movement is not only in the economy, but also in the enlightenment of modern Chinese thought. Westernization education is the educational reform carried out by Westernization Faction in order to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。

Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。

Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。

Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。

Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。

The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.

Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。

In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.

2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。

Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".

3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.

4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.

2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.

3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.

4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。

Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.

Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.

The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。

Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。

The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。

Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.

During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.

3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。

3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。

4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
1.2100多年前，中国汉代的张骞两次出使中亚，开启了中国同中亚各国友好交往的大门，开辟出一条横贯东西、连接欧亚的丝绸之路。千百年来，在这条古老的丝绸之路上，各国人民共同谱写出千古传诵的友好篇章。

The Silk Road first emerged more than 2,100 years ago during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) after China's imperial envoy Zhang Qian twice visited Central Asia. It became a bridge between East and West, opening the door to friendly engagement between China and Central Asia. For two millennia, countless tales of everlasting friendship between peoples have been woven into this ancient network.

2.中国走的是一条和平发展之路。作为拥有五千年文明积淀的东方大国，中国人历来崇尚以和为贵，从来就没有对外扩张的基因。600多年前，郑和率领当时世界上最强大的船队七次远航太平洋和西印度洋，到访30多个国家和地区，没有侵占一寸土地。这对于当年热衷于殖民扩张的西方国家来说，简直是不可思议，但中国确实做到了。

China follows a path of peaceful development. China is a big country in the East with a five-thousand-year civilization. The Chinese believe in peace. There’s not a single bone of making external expansionism in the body of the Chinese. As early as over six hundred years ago, the Chinese navigator Zheng He led the biggest fleet in the world to the Pacific and west Indian Oceans on seven expeditions, visiting over thirty countries and regions, not taking a single inch of land. That was actually quite inconceivable for those Western powers who were busy making colonial expansion, but the Chinese did that.

3.在19世纪的西学东渐中，基督新教的教士也开始进入中国，天主教士也随口岸的开放来往各地，他们成立教会学校、医院，并开设印书馆、设立期刊、并译著大量各种书籍。对于西学的传入有很大贡献。

In the 19th century, Protestant priests also began to enter China, and Catholics also came with the opening of the ports. They established schools and hospitals, printed books, set up periodicals, and translated a large number of books. They contributed greatly to the Eastward Spread of Western learning。

4.在新航路的开辟，文艺复兴，宗教改革运动，资产阶级革命，产业革命的推动下，至洋务运动发生时，资本主义世界体系已初步完成，人类进入了一个新时期，这也是历史发展的必然。

Driven by the opening of new routes, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, and by the time of the foreign affairs movement, the capitalist world system had been initially completed and mankind had entered a new period, which was a natural development of history.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xie Fan 解帆==
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。

Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。

The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。

The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history moving forward, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。

The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Westernization Movement established the first bunch of modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。

1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang.

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.

3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。

3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。

4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

1.明代中期以后，政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，与此同时，造船技术和航海技术不断发展，海上交通代之而起，使丝绸之路贸易全面走向衰落。

After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the government adopted a policy of shutting down the country. At the same time, shipbuilding technology and navigation technology continued to develop, and maritime traffic took its place, causing the Silk Road trade to decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和，这位航海史上的先驱，以智慧为舵，扬起和平的风帆，缔造了世界航海业发展的里程碑，厚植了“一带一路”的文化底色与民心基石，书写了中国同其他国家友好交往的千古佳话。

Zheng He, a pioneer in the history of navigation, took wisdom as the rudder and raised the sail of peace. He created a milestone in the development of the world’s navigation industry. An eternal story of friendly exchanges between countries.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread Western geometry, geography knowledge, and humanistic views to Chinese society, and developed the ethos of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty to learn Western studies.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
1、丝绸之路经过亚洲、中东、北非和欧洲。几个世纪以来，丝绸之路是东西方交流的最重要的线路。尽管名字叫丝绸之路，人们进行贸易的商品却不仅仅是丝绸。玄奘和马可·波罗都留下了他们丝绸之路之旅的详尽记录。

The Silk Road went through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road was the most important line of communication connecting East and West. Although it's called the Silk Road, people traded much more than silk. Both Xuan Zang and Marco Polo left detailed records of their journeys along the Silk Road.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、郑和（1317-1435）是中国最有名的探险家之一。1405至1433年间，郑和完成了七次著名的航行。他游览了亚洲和非洲的许多国家。郑和还从他游览的国家带回来很多礼物，像药品，珍珠和珍禽异兽。

Zheng He (1371-1435) was one of China's most famous explorers. Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

As one of China's most famous explorers,Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。

Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China. The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of China's modern history and promoted the Westernization movement. The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enlightenment in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。

The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.

4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。

Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

1."海上丝绸之路"是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The "South China Sea Silk Road" is also known as the Maritime Cultural Communication Center of China. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只最多（240多艘）、海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，比欧洲国家航海时间早几十年，是明朝强盛的直接体现。

Zheng He's voyages to the West were the largest, the largest number of ships (more than 240), the largest number of seafarers and the longest voyages in ancient China. They were decades earlier than those of European countries. They were the direct manifestation of the prosperity of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period. Missionaries not only spread Christian doctrine, but also introduced a lot of science and technology.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动的最根本的指导思想是"自强"、"求富"。其分类思想就是"师夷制夷" 、"中体西用" 八个字。前四个字"师夷制夷" 表明洋务运动与外国资本主义侵略者的关系，即学习西方的长技用以抵制西方的侵略。

The most fundamental guiding ideology of Westernization Movement is "self strengthening" and "seeking wealth". Its classification thought is "learning from foreigners, controlling foreigners" and "Chinese style and western use". The first four words "learning from foreigners and controlling foreigners" indicate the relationship between the Westernization Movement and foreign capitalist invaders, that is, learning from Western long-term skills to resist Western aggression.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。

The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，

The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

1. 丝绸之路全长约7000公里，经由这条线路所进行的贸易中，中国的丝绸最具代表性，因此得名“丝绸之路”。

The total length of the silk road is about 7000 km. Among the trade carried out along this route, China's silk is the most representative, so it is named the "Silk Road". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 在中国，作为国家的政治任务，郑和下西洋对于中国的经济的刺激作用微乎其微。而在西方，东方的商品和航海贸易的利润直接加速了资本主义的原始积累。

In China, as a national political task, Zheng He's Voyages had little stimulating effect on China's economy. However, in the west, the profits from the eastern commodity and maritime trade directly accelerated the primitive accumulation of capitalism. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 甲午战争以后，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, many people with breadth of vision began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the West about natural science and social science, and demanded political reform. During this period, a large amount of Western knowledge was introduced into China, and its influence was very extensive. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，采用西方先进生产技术，创办了一批近代军事工业。

In the early stage of Westernization Movement, the School of Westernization established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and adopting advanced western production technology. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

In the early stage of Westernization Movement, under the banner of "self-improvement",the School of Westernization adopted advanced western production technology and established a number of modern military industries.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。

Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。

Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
1.东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Sea Spice Road".

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times.

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Westernization Movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization School in the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to bring in Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.

2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.

3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.

4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。

The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
1.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线。

Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which started in the ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。

Maritime Silk Road is the sea-lane by through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with other countries. This Silk Road is mainly centered with the South China Sea, thus is called the South China Sea Silk Road as well. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic process of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty and the modern times.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, is a self-helping movement carried out by the late Qing dynasty in the 1860s and 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1.张骞到大宛后，向大宛国王说明了自己出使月氏的使命和沿途种种遭遇，希望大宛能派人相送，并表示今后如能返回汉朝，一定奏明汉皇，送他很多财物，重重酬谢。大宛王本来早就风闻东方汉朝的富庶，很想与汉朝通使往来，但苦于匈奴的中梗阻碍，未能实现。汉使的意外到来，使他非常高兴。

After arriving in Dayuan, Zhang Qian explained to the king of Dawan his mission and experiences along the way, and hoped that Dawan could send men to escort him to the Darouzhi. He also said that if he could return to the Han Dynasty in the future, he would tell the emperor of Han and implore him to send a lot of wealth and rewards to the The the king of Dawan. The King of Dawan had long heard of the wealth of the Han Dynasty and wanted to communicate with Han, but he failed to do so because of the hindrance from the Xiongnu. The unexpected arrival of han Emissary made him very happy.

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's expeditions were the largest in ancient China, with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. They were also the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the voyages of European geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th century.

3.此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。

At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time. Missionaries spread the Christian doctrine, but also spread a lot of science and technology.

4.为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。

In order to relieve domestic troubles and foreign invasion, enrich the country and strengthen the army to maintain the rule of Qing dynasty, some people began to learn Western culture and advanced technology, so they were called westernization Group.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
1.唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The prosperous Silk Road in the Tang dynasty also further promoted the exchange of thoughts and cultures between the east and the west, and had a lot of positive and far-reaching effects on the later development of both side’s social and national ideologies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.欧洲人相继进行全球性海上扩张活动，特别是地理大发现，开启了大航海时代，开辟了世界性海洋贸易新时代。西欧商人的海上扩张，改变了传统海上丝绸之路以和平贸易为基调的特性，商业活动常常伴随着战争硝烟和武装抢劫。

The European maritime expansion around the world, especially the discovery of the Age of Discovery, ushered in a new era of world trade in the oceans. The maritime expansion of western european merchants, often accompanied by war and armed robbery, changed the traditional sea route of Silk Road of peaceful trade.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展,但许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines. Many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence. On the contrary many traditional academies have been impacted by Western academies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是近代教育的开端。要开始洋务运动，兴办洋务就必须要有精通洋务的人才，但是中国传统的科举制教育却远远无法满足洋务运动对人才的需要。因此兴办新式学堂，派遣留学生，就成了洋务运动进行下去的一项重要的举措。

Westernization Movement was the beginning of modern education. In order to start the Westernization Movement, it is necessary to have people who are proficient in Westernization, but the traditional imperial examination system in China can not meet the needs of the Westernization Movement. Therefore, the establishment of new schools and the dispatch of foreign students has become an important initiative of the Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201228 trans

2020-12-27T11:31:39Z

Chen Jingjing: /* Chen Jingjing 陈静静 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201221 trans

2020-12-20T10:23:25Z

Chen Jingjing: /* Chen Jingjing 陈静静 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung).

Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.

杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays.
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。

胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.

文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''

'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''

A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place.

I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.

读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。一个人只能看到有限的内容。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。一个人能看到内容有限。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社

文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

'''East Station'''

Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.

'''东站'''

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station.

This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol?
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”

Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.
==Guo Lu 郭露==
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.

The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”

而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。

北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。

从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique?

Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.

1989. 9. 13

Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.

但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？

今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。

1989.9.13

请不要删除或改变这个日子。这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。

但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？

今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。

1989. 9. 13

请不要删减或更改这个日期。新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays
In the Context of Fable of September'''

Jie Lu

'''Abstract'''

In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.

'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集
以九月寓言为背景'''

吕杰

'''摘要'''

在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text.
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992.
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.

而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).

在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]

张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.

张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).

接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.

张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.

于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.

阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.

与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear).
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜）与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yu 李玉==
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age.
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices.
==Lin Min 林敏==
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.]

This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lin Xin 林鑫==
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.

唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together.
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality.

The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations.

As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).

这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。

正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.
==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.

金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation.

Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.

而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。

因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。

因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence.
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.

因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.

In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques.
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.

显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130).
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling.

Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present.

The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.

最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109).

So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays.

''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.

......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.

然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.

Works Cited（不用翻）

Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)

Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968)

Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)

Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)

Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)

Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.

Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a

Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105

Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"'''

''Xinmin Liu

''
'''Abstract
'''

Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi.

Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.

“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”

刘新民

''
'''摘要
'''

自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。

张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.

In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”

它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。

在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。

在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve.
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?

称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s?

Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).]
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones.

Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.
==Sagara Seydou ==
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]

很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest?

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.

==Si Yu 司妤==
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:

On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography?
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”:

It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago.

Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）

==Su Lin 苏琳==
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.

==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted.

No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').

但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness.

A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.
Zhang 1999a, 37.
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.”

What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.

作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。

他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”

那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary.

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.

Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass.

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.”

Zhang 1994a, 125.
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.

Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994.
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wang Yu 王煜==
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:

The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.

事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：

这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：

这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun.

One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.

作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。

有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay.

Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.

其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.

Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.

For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）

与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。

关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.”

'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''

''King-Fai Tam''

I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre.

Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）

他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”

'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''

''谭景辉''

首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''谭景辉''

首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Xiang 邬香==
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.

虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again.

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.

我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

[http://www.example.com link title]

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.

然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.

在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.

这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities.

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.

'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''Abstract'''

In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.

其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。

'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''摘要'''

本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许晶==
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.

In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.

In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

==Xu Jing 许静==
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.

我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural

Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world.

The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.

在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).

在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

'''1. CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.

1. 特征

1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式

与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

'''1. 特征

1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''

和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.

“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.

该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.

不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。

地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。

进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yao Jia 姚佳==

'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''

Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==

Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.

'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''

The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.

在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.

I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.

而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

划词翻译
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。

我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==

This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.

在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==

The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.

非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==

'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''

Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.

One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.

'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？

这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?

这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.

在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==

Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife.

Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.

Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.

For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==

The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).

Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).

大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.

A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.

王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931））和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。

朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。

1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

'''3.Trends

3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.

The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.
3.潮流与趋势
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3.趋势
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。

“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。好方法”（王萌，1994年）。这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).

'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''

From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==

-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；

-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。

中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”).

-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).

The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.

20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。

从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984).

1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.

2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.

老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，其中之一就是“小狗包弟”（Ba Jin 1981），这篇文章中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。

1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。

2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).

'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''

Martin Woesler

The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers".

Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

'''Zhou Zuoren'''

The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.

周作人

中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人

民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==

The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots.

3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]

4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).

5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==

So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.

The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.

因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==

Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.

"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==

"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.

'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''

Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.

1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。

'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''

巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==

One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:

这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).

7 (Zhou 1923).

8 (The Family in 1951)

9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).

10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..

11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).

2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him.

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==

3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.

本文是对'文革'的控诉。没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==

5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out

"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."

6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。

正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.

综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

20201214 cult

2020-12-20T05:09:25Z

Chen Jingjing: /* Chen Jingjing 陈静静 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

1.儒家思想精髓在于它的社会伦理思想，正是封建社会伦理观从国家统治阶级的高度期望出发将人们生活现实中的行为规范用通俗的语言规范起来，让农民成为社会道德思想的奴隶，而这种封建伦理观作为封建统治阶级上层建筑社会意识中的最广泛影响治理社会群众基础的核心，从而完成对国家社会双重治理的理想效果。

The essence of Confucianism lies in its social ethical thought. It is the thought of feudal society that regulates the behavior norms of people’s lives in popular language from the high expectations of the country’s ruling class, making the peasants be enslaved to social ethics. As the core of the social consciousness of the feudal ruling class superstructure, which has the most extensive influence on governing the society and the people, it has achieved the ideal effect of dual governance of the state and society. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教把生命看得极为重要，修道就是要长生不死，主张通过修炼来延长生命的长度，提高生命存在的质量，以达到生命的永恒。道教主张以清净无为、不争寡欲的态度对待世俗生活，以“我命在我不在天”的精神进行修炼，通过各种道术修炼，与道合一，成为长生不死的神仙。

Taoism regards life as extremely important and practicing Taoism is to become immortal. It advocates to extend the length of life and improve the quality of life by practicing, so as to achieve eternity of life. Taoism holds an attitude of purity and non-contentiousness towards worldly life, and cultivation in the spirit of "I am the master of my fate", so that through various Taoist practices, one can unite with the Tao and become an immortal deity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

1.孔子生而七漏，头上圩顶，而又因其母曾祷于尼丘山，故名“丘”，字“仲尼”。

Confucius was born terribly ugly with a bump on the head, and as his mother once prayed on Mount Niqiu for his birth, he is named “Qiu” with the word “Zhongni”.

2.道家认为只有老百姓认可的平等才幸福，人们想要没有徭役租赋负担，“内足衣食之用，外无势利之争”的社会

Taoism claims that only the sort of equality that the ordinary people recognized will bring true happiness. People are yearn to be free from labour rent and taxes and to live in a society with adequate food and clothes and no struggle for power and gains.

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

1. It's generally believed that when Confucius was in his late 60s, he returned to his hometown Qufu in Shandong Province. For several years in his early 70s, he taught a group of disciples who later propagated his beliefs and developed their own philosophies.

人们普遍认为，孔子在六十多岁时回到了他的家乡山东曲阜。在70年代初期的几年中，他教过一群门徒，后来这些人传播了自己的信仰并发展了自己的哲学。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 14:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

我们通常认为，孔子在六十多岁时回到了他的家乡山东曲阜。在七十多岁的前几年，他教过一群门徒，后来这些人传播了他的信仰并发展了自己的哲学。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Consequently, many leaders of Taoism had gained great respects from the imperial governments.

因此，许多道教领袖得到了帝王政府的尊敬。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 14:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

因此，许多道教领袖都受到了朝政的尊敬。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
1. 孔子提出“有教无类”，认为人人都应该受教育。在教育实践中创立了灵活多样的教学方法，提倡“学”与“思”的结合、学习与复习的结合以及教与学的结合，讲求因材施教和启发式教学等等。

Confucius maintained the idea that everyone has the right to be educated despite class differences. In teaching practice, Confucius adopted flexible teaching methods which involve the combinations of learning and thinking, learning and reviewing as well as teaching and learning. He strived for educating students in accordance with their aptitude and adopted a heuristic style of teaching.

Confucius put forward "there is no kind of education," and believed that everyone should be educated. In educational practice, flexible and diverse teaching methods have been created, advocating the combination of "learning" and "thinking", the combination of learning and review, and the combination of teaching and learning, and emphasis on teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and heuristic teaching, etc.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 道家强调自由、自然、修身养性，甚至追求永生。道教对中国文化的许多领域都产生了深刻而持久的影响，包括艺术、哲学、医学和美食，并在东亚地区广泛流传。

Daoism emphasizes freedom, nature, self-cultivation and even pursues immortality. Daoism has had a deep and lasting influence in many fields of Chinese culture, including the arts, philosophy, medicine, and cuisine. It has also spread widely throughout East Asia.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism emphasizes freedom, nature, self-cultivation, and even the pursuit of immortality. Taoism has had a profound and lasting influence on many areas of Chinese culture, including art, philosophy, medicine, and gastronomy, and it has spread widely in East Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.儒家思想以传统封建社会为物质承担者，传统封建社会以儒家思想为精神承担者，传统社会的瓦解，致使孔子圣人权威丧失。

The Confucianism takes traditional feudal society as material undertaker while the latter takes the former as sipiritual undertaker. Therefore, the disintegration of traditional society causes the Sage Confucius to lose his authority.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道家作为一种思想流派，崇尚大道，主张“惟道是从、道法自然”，主要从事的是学术活动和政治文化活动，奉《道德经》、《庄子》、《黄帝四经》等为经典。

As a school of thought, Taoism advocates the great truth and follows the principle of nature. It is mainly for academic, political and cultural activities and regards Tao Te Ching,Chuang-tzu and Huang Di Si Jing as classics.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
1、“儒学”、“儒家”、“儒教”这些概念要分清。儒学作为一种学说，儒家作为一个阶层，儒教作为一种信仰，三者需要区分开来。

We should clearly distinguish the three concepts ---- Confucianism, Confucianist, Confucian religion, among which Confucianism is a theory and Confucianist is a strata and Confucian religion is a religion. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2、在我国优秀传统文化中，道家思想蕴含了和谐理想、平等观念、诚信美德等诸多伦理智慧，这些思想很多都与社会主义核心价值观具有相通性，它们为社会主义核心价值观构筑了坚实的文化沃土。

In Chinese excellent traditional cultures, Taoism contains such ethics and wisdom as the desire for harmony, the idea of equality and the virtue of honesty, many of which have commonalities with the core values of socialism and have laid a solid cultural foundation for the core values of socialism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In Chinese excellent traditional culture, Taoism contains many ethical wisdoms, such as the ideal of harmony, the concept of equality, and the virtue of honesty. Many of these ideas have similarities with the core socialist values. They have built a solid cultural fertile ground for the core socialist values.

==Grosheva, Anna==

1. Confucianism is the main ancient philosophy of China. It implicitly embodies key aspects of Chinese culture. Confucian beliefs have constantly changed and developed over the past 2,500 years.
儒学是中国的主要古代哲学。它隐含了中国文化的关键方面。在过去的2500年中，儒家信仰不断变化和发展。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. During its popularization since its birth, Taoism had long been a kind of high-level culture, and widely pursued by the upper-class society.
道教自诞生之日起就一直是一种高级文化，并受到上层社会的广泛追捧。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==
1. 孔子是我国古代伟大的思想家和教育家,儒家学派创始人,世界最著名的文化名人之一。孔子的言行思想主要载于语录体散文集《论语》。

Confucius was a great thinker of ancient China and educator, he is also the founder of Confucianism and one of the world's most famous cultural figures. His words and deeds were mainly recorded in his work ''The Analects''.

Confucius is a great thinker and educator in ancient China, he is also the founder of Confucianism and one of the world's most famous cultural figures. His words and deeds were mainly recorded in his work ''The Analects''.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教(或道教)是指各种相关的中国哲学传统和概念的英文名称。这些传统影响了东亚两千多年，有些还在国际上传播。道家的礼教和伦理强调 "道 "的三宝，即“慈、俭、让”。道家思想注重 "无为"、"人本"、"虚无"。无为常常被错误地翻译为（"无所作为"），这种错误由于非道家学者的翻译而广泛传播。道教强调人与自然的联系。道教认为，这种联系减少了对规则和秩序的需要，使人更好地理解世界。

Taoism (or Daoism) is the English name referring to a variety of related Chinese philosophical traditions and concepts. These traditions influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao; namely, compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei (" action that does not involve struggle or excessive effort" ) spontaneity, humanism, and emptiness. Wu wei is often incorrectly translated as ("non-action") and this error has propagated widely as a result of translations made by academics who are non practising Taoists. An emphasis is placed on the link between people and nature. Taoism teaches that this link lessened the need for rules and order, and leads one to a better understanding of the world.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
1.孔子是中国儒学的创始人。两千余年来，儒家思想对中国的影响不仅体政治、政治、文化等方面，也体每一个中国人的行为和思维方式之中。

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism in China. For more than two thousand years, the influence of Confucianism on China is not only in politics, politics, culture and so on, but also in the behavior and mode of thinking of every Chinese.

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism in China. For more than two thousand years, the influence of his Confucianism on China is not only in politics,culture and so on, but also in the behavior and mode of thinking of every Chinese.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教在世界宗教中是独一无二的，因为它没有官方的教条和教义。它最重要的文本是《道德经》和《庄子》，这两本书可能被认为是文学或哲学作品，而不是宗教文本。

Daoism is unique among world religions in that it has no official dogma or doctrine. Its most important texts are The Tao Te Ching and The Chuang Tzu, both of which might be considered works of literature or philosophy more than religious texts. --[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Daoism is unique among world religions in that it has no official dogma or doctrine. Its most important texts are The Tao Te Ching and The Chuang Tzu, both of which might be considered works of literature or philosophy instead of religious texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Daoism is unique among world religions in that it has no official dogma or doctrine. Its most important texts are The Tao Te Ching and The Chuang Tzu, both of which might be considered as works of literature or philosophy rather than religious texts.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 孔子是儒家学派的创始人，也是春秋时期人本主义思想的集大成者。儒家思想已成为我们文化遗产中的一部分。

Confucius was the founder of the Confucian school and the main Humanist thinker of the Spring and Autumn Period. Confucian ideas have become part of our cultural inheritance.

Confucius was the founder of the Confucianism and the major Humanist thinker in the Spring and Autumn Period, whose ideas have become part of our cultural inheritance.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius was the founder of the Confucian school and a master of humanistic thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period. And Confucianism has become a part of our cultural inheritance.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 05:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 传统上，道教是归因于三个来源，最古老的是黄帝传说，但最著名的是老子的《道德经》。第三个来源就是庄子的作品。道教的最初来源据说是古代的《易经》。

Traditionally, Taoism has been attributed to three sources, the oldest being the legendary ‘Yellow Emperor’, but the most famous is Lao Zi's Tao Teh Ching. The third source is Chuang Tzu's work. However, the original source of Taoism is said to be the Book of Changes.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 08:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

孔子在中国历史上最早提出人的天赋素质相近，个性差异主要是因为后天教育与社会环境影响（“性相近也，习相远也”）。因而人人都可能受教育，人人都应该受教育。

Confucius was the first Chinese to argue that human beings are endowed with similar qualities, and personality differences are mainly due to the influence of education and social environment ("By nature men are similar to one another, but learning and practice make them different."). Thus, everyone could be and should be educated.

庄子在哲学思想上继承和发展了老子“道法自然”的思想观点，使道家真正成为一个学派，他自己也成为了道家的重要代表人物，与老子并称“道家之祖”。

Zhuangzi inherited and developed Laozi's philosophical idea of "the natural law", making Taoism an academic school, and he himself became an important representative of Taoism, known as "the ancestor of Taoism" together with Laozi.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhuangzi inherited and developed Laozi's idea of "Tao following nature" in philosophy, making Taoism a school of thought. He himself became an important representative of Taoism and was called "the ancestor of Taoism" with Laozi.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

1.儒家思想是先秦诸子百家学说之一，由孔子于公元前5世纪创立，是中国影响力最大的流派，也是中国古代的主流意识。儒家思想的内涵丰富复杂，在广泛汲取古代典籍精华的基础上逐步发展出基础理论和思想，即讲大一统、讲君臣父子。由程朱理学、陆王心学到废除封建君主专制制度等，都体现了儒家思想的内容。

Confucianism is one of the various schools of thought in pre-Qin period, established by Confucius in the 5th century BC. It is the most influential school in China and the mainstream ideology in ancient China. The connotation of Confucianism is rich and complex. On the basis of extensively absorbing the essence of ancient classics, it has gradually developed the basic theories and thoughts, namely, the great unification and the emperor and the subjects just like father and sons. Besides, the philosophy of Cheng and Zhu, the philosophy of Lu and Wang, the abolition of the feudal autocratic monarchy, and so on are all the embodiment of Confucianism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道家思想是无所不能、永恒不灭，有辩证法因素和无神论倾向，是老子总结古老的道家思想所形成的完整系统理论，它以“道”为最高哲学范畴，认为“道”是世界的最高真理，是宇宙万物的本源，也是宇宙万物赖以生存的依据。其主流派有黄老学派，鬼谷子纵横家、修真派、法家学派、玄学、杨朱学派。无为、不争，是老子对君王的告诫，汉文帝、唐太宗、宋仁宗、明太祖等皆以道家思想治国，使人民从前朝苛政之后得以休养生息。

Taoism, omnipotent and eternal, with a tendency to dialectical factors and atheism, is a complete system of theories formed by Lao Zi by summarizing ancient Taoist thoughts. It takes "Tao" as the highest philosophy and truth, the origin of the universe, and also the basis for the existence of the universe. Its main schools are Huang Lao school, Guiguzi school, Xiuzhen school, Legalist school, metaphysics, and Yang Zhu school. Lao Zi persuaded emperors to do nothing and fight for nothing. And Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty and Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty all ruled with Taoist thoughts, so that people could recover from the tyranny of the previous dynasty.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
1. 理学是中国古代最为精致、最为完备的理论体系，其影响至深至巨。理学的天理是道德神学，同时成为儒家神权和王权的合法性依据，至南宋末期被采纳为官方哲学。

Neo-Confucianism is the most exquisite and complete theoretical system in ancient China, and its influence is profound and enormous. The natural principle of Neo-Confucianism is moral theology, which has become the legal basis of Confucian theocracy and kingship, and was adopted as official philosophy at the end of Southern Song Dynasty.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 古代道家崇尚自然，有辩证法的因素和无神论的倾向，但是主张清静无为，反对斗争。

Ancient Taoism advocates nature, has dialectic factors and atheism tendency, but advocates quietism and opposes struggle.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
1、儒家学派的创始人孔子第一次打破了旧统治阶级垄断教育的局面，变“学在官府”为“有教无类”，使传统文化教育播及到整个民族。因此儒家思想有了坚实的民族心理基础，为全社会所接受并逐步儒化了全社会。但是儒学在历史上也多次遭受严重冲击，近至满清的文字狱，毁古书严重的《四库全书》，远至秦始皇焚书令等。

Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, broke the monopoly of the old ruling class on education for the first time, changed the "learning in the government" to "teaching without class", and spread traditional culture and education to the whole nation. As a result, Confucianism had a solid national psychological foundation and was accepted by society as a whole, which gradually became Confucianized. However, Confucianism has also suffered many serious impacts in history, from the Manchu Qing dynasty's written jails to the destruction of ancient books in the Siku Quanshu, and the Qin Shihuang's book burning order.

Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, broke the monopoly of education by the old ruling class for the first time, changing "study in the government" to "education without class", so that traditional cultural education spread to the entire nation. Therefore, Confucianism has a solid national psychological foundation, accepted by the whole society and gradually Confucianized the whole society. However, Confucianism has also suffered severe impacts in history many times, as far as the Manchu literary prison, the "Siku Quanshu", which has severely destroyed ancient books, and as far as the book burning order of Qin Shihuang.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 14:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2、一般认为道家思想的特征之一，是通过各种修炼而达到永恒不死的至高完美境界，“因而开创了中医养生学” ；又从炼丹实践中发明了火药，中国四大发明都与道教有关。从养生学源流的角度说：寿命无限。

It is generally believed that one of the characteristics of Taoist thought is to achieve the supreme perfection of eternal immortality through various cultivations, thus it creating the science of Chinese medicine and health and from the practice of alchemy, gunpowder was invented, and the four major inventions of China are all related to Taoism. From the perspective of the source of health science:it means infinite life span.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

1.董仲舒顺应汉武帝强权的需要，倡导“罢黜百家，独尊儒家”的思想。
Dong Zhongshu adapted to the needs of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty to strengthen power, and advocated the idea of "deposing hundreds of schools and respecting Confucianism only". --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

2.道家以“道”为核心，是“诸子百家”中一门极为重要的哲学流派，存在于中华各文化领域，对中国乃至世界的文化都产生了巨大的影响。
Taoism, with "Tao" as its core， is a very important philosophical school in "various schools of thought". It exists in all cultural fields of China and has a great impact on Chinese and even the world culture.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
1. 儒家在先秦时期和诸子百家地位平等，秦始皇焚书坑儒后，使儒家遭受重创。而后汉武帝为了维护封建专制统治，听从董仲舒“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的建议，对思想实施钳制，使儒家重新兴起。历经两千多年的发展演变，儒学文化构建起完整的思想体系，涉及政治、教育、道德伦理、行为准则、生活技艺等诸多方面，长期涵养国人的智慧和心灵，形成固定思维、心理以及生存模式，可谓根深蒂固。

Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of "banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only" and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 《老子》是道家学派的主要著作之一，它的产生丰富了我国传统文化和思想宝库。老子是道家思想的创始人，他提出了许多重要的范畴和观点，在中国哲学史上独放异彩，并给予后世以深远影响。

''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoist School; its production enriches our country's traditional culture and stock house of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed a lot of important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and influence the afterworld deeply. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoism and its production enriches our traditional culture and the treasury of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed many important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and have a far-reaching influence on the afterworld.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.人道主义是人类永恒的主题，对于任何社会，任何时代，任何一个政府都是适用的，而秩序和制度社会则是建立人类文明社会的基本要求。

Humanity is the eternal theme of humanity, applicable to any society, any era, any government, while order and institutional society are the basic requirements for building a civilized human society.

Humanitarianism is the eternal theme of humanity, applicable to any society, any era, any government, while order and institutional society are the basic requirements for building a civilized human society.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Humanity is the eternal theme of human society, and it is applicable to any society, any era, and any government. Order and institution is the basic requirement for building a civilized human society.
----

2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。

Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as a native religion.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also known as a native religion.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
1、孔子的大同社会、小康社会理想对中国后世影响深远。后来不同历史时期，不同阶段的思想家提出不同内容的憧憬蓝图和奋斗目标，这种思想对进步思想家、改革家也有一定启发，洪秀全、康有为、谭嗣同和孙中山都受其影响。

Confucius' ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society had a profound influence on later generations in China. Later on, thinkers at different stages of history put forward different content of visionary blueprints and goals to strive for, and such ideas also inspired progressive thinkers and reformers, with Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Yat-sen being influenced by them.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

The social ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society from Confucius has posed profound impacts on China's future generations. Later, even in sundry historical times, miscellaneous idealists put forward different blueprints and struggle goals, which indicated that Confucius ideal has inspired advanced idealists and refomers, including Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Zhongshan.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

2、新中国成立后，对旧社会道教中存在的一些不合理制度和陋习进行了改革，道教的面目为之一新。中国道教协会的成立实现了全国道教徒的大联合，广大爱国道教徒开始为发展道教事业共同努力。道教在反右斗争、大跃进、人民公社化等政治运动中受到波及。

After the founding of New China, some unreasonable systems and bad practices that existed in Taoism in the old society were reformed, and Taoism took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association realized the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Taoism was out of some unreasonable systems and bad practices in the old society were reformed and it then took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association promoted the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. However, Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 05:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
从鸦片战争到戊戌变法是新儒学的准备阶段，这一阶段主要表现为儒家学者在西方文明冲击之下被动接受西方文明的一些内容以求自强。
The period from the Opium War to the Hundred Days Reform was the preparatory period of Neo-Confucianism,which was characterized by the passive acceptance of some elements of Western civilization by Confucian scholars in order to strengthen themselves under the impact of Western civilization.

道教源于神仙思想和神仙方术。虽神仙方术没有系统的理论，但神仙家信仰的方术被道教承袭，神仙方术演化为道教的修炼方术，神仙方士演化为道家的道士。
Taoism originated from the idea of the divine immortals and the divine immortal arts. Given the fact that there is no systematic theory of divine and immortalism, the divine and immortalist beliefs were inherited by Taoism. The divine and immortalist prescriptions evolved into Taoist cultivation prescriptions, and the divine and immortalist practitioners evolved into Taoist priests.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 孔子（公元前551～公元前479）名丘，字仲尼，是中华文化思想的集大成者，儒家学说的创始人。我国古代伟大的思想家、政治家、教育家。他的哲学思想提倡“仁义”，“礼乐”，“德治教化”,儒学思想渗入中国人的生活，文化领域中，同时也影响了世界上其它地区的大部分人近两千年。

Confucius (551BC-479 BC), whose name is Qiu, courtesy name Zhong Ni, is the master of Chinese culture and thought and the founder of Confucianism. He is a great thinker, statesman and educator in ancient China. His philosophy advocated "benevolence and righteousness", "rites and music", and "moral education". Confucianism permeated the life and culture of the Chinese people, and also influenced most people in other parts of the world for nearly two thousand years.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2 在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。

Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also known as the native religion. Taoism had a profound influence on the politics, economy and culture of ancient China and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Taoism gained a new life through the democratic reform of the religious system and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the Party and the government in the new era, Taoism in China has taken on an unprecedented new look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

1.在大同的世界里，天下的人，不止以自己的家人为亲，不止以自己的父母儿女为爱，而是相互敬爱，爱天下所有的人。使老有所终，壮有所用，孩子们都能获得温暖与关怀，孤独的人与残疾者都有所依靠，男人各自有自己的事情，女人有满意的归宿。

Love each other not only in our family, but also in the world. Make the old have a home, strong and useful, children can get warmth and care, lonely people and the disabled can rely on others, men have their own businesses, women have a satisfactory home.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.儒家认为平等是来自于人性，人性是善良的那么人类社会也应该是善良的，既被证成的平等；而道家认为过去平等已经有很好的发展成果，那么在现有的平等认知基础上现在以及未来社会应该发展的更好才是，但是儒家礼教阶层阻碍了人类发展并成为窃国诸侯剥削百姓的大旗，所以要非仁绝礼消解各种意识形态，得到一个人类都满意的社会，既被承认的平等。

Confucianism believes that equality comes from human nature, and human nature is good, so human society should also be good, which is proved to be equality; while Taoism believes that equality has achieved good results in the past, then on the basis of the existing equality cognition, the society should develop better now and in the future. However, the Confucian ethical class hindered the development of human beings and became the banner of exploiting the common people by the feudal lords，therefore, it is necessary to eliminate all kinds of ideologies without benevolence, to achieve a society that is satisfactory to all human beings, which is already recognized as equality.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.君子坦荡荡，小人长戚戚。

A gentleman is open and poised; while a petty man is unhappy and worried.

The gentleman is calm and at ease, while the small man is always full of anxiety. --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

2.人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。

The person reflects the earth.The earth reflects heaven. Heaven reflects the Way. And the Way reflects its own nature.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Men must conform to the earth, earth to heaven, heaven to Tao and Tao to nature.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

1. 经由董仲舒重新解释和发挥的儒教教义，十分重视礼仪制度的建设，特别是其中祭天、祭祖的礼仪制度建设。完备而复杂的礼仪制度有助于人们养成遵守秩序、安分守己的习惯，这正是儒教重视礼仪的重要目的之一。

Dong Zhongshu's reinterpretation of Confucian doctrines attached great importance to the construction of ritual system, especially that of offering sacrifices to heaven and ancestors. A complete and complex ritual system helps people to develop the habit of abiding by order and bahaving properly, which is one of the important purposes for Confucianism to emphasize rites.

Dong Zhongshu's reinterpretation of Confucian doctrines attached great importance to the construction of ritual system, especially that of offering sacrifices to heaven and ancestors. A complete and complex ritual system helps people to develop the habit of abiding by order and conducting themselves, which is one of the important purposes for Confucianism to emphasize rites.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 道家以道为世界的本原，以柔弱因循为道的作用，在政治上主张无为而治，因为对道和无为的理解不同，所以内部又划分为不同派别，不同的学派之间思想重心也不同，或偏于治国，或偏于治身等。

Daoists regard Tao as the origin of the world. In politics, they uphold that Tao is to conform to the nature and advocated governing by doing nothing. According to the understanding of Tao and doing nothing, there are different denominations of Daoism focusing on different thoughts, some of which focus on governing and some on self-cultivation.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
1-儒家通过等级制度的传播而传播。这种宗教是由于中国人对邻国的影响而传承的。儒家思想从其在山东的地盘传到了中国的北部和南部地区。

Confucianism diffused through hierarchical diffusion. This religion was passed on through the Chinese's influence on their neighboring countries. Confucianism spread from its hearth in the Shandong province into China's northern and southern territories.

2-道教或道教是中国血统的哲学传统，强调与道家和谐相处。道是大多数中国哲学流派的基本思想。然而，在道教中，它表示的原则是存在的一切的来源，模式和实质。

Taoism, or Daoism, is a philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists. --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 08:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Su kyi

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1. 董仲舒提出“春秋大一统”和“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”，强调以儒家思想为国家的哲学根本，杜绝其他思想体系。汉武帝采纳了他的主张。从此儒学成为正统思想，研究四书五经的经学也成为了显学。此时，孔子已死三百余年。董仲舒在具体的政策上将道家，阴阳家和儒家中有利于封建帝王统治的部分加以发展，形成了新儒家思想。

Dong Zhongshu proposed the "Great Unification of the Spring and Autumn Period" and the "Dismissal of the Hundred Schools and Exclusive Respect for Confucianism", emphasizing Confucianism as the philosophical foundation of the state and the elimination of other systems of thought. Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty adopted his ideas. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodoxy, and the study of the Four Books and Five Classics became a prominent school. At this time, Confucius had been dead for more than 300 years. Dong Zhongshu developed the parts of Taoism, Yin and Yang and Confucianism that were beneficial to the rule of the feudal emperor in his specific policies, forming Neo-Confucianism.

Dong Zhongshu proposed the "Great Unification of the Nation" and the "Dismissal of the Hundred Schools and Exclusive Respect for Confucianism", emphasizing Confucianism as the philosophical foundation of the state and the elimination of other systems of thought. Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty adopted his ideas. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodoxy, and the study of the Four Books and Five Classics became a prominent school. At this time, Confucius had been dead for more than 300 years. Dong Zhongshu developed the parts of Taoism, Yin and Yang School and Confucianism that were beneficial to the rule of the feudal emperor in his specific policies, forming Neo-Confucianism.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. “道”是中国古代哲学的重要范畴，用以说明世界的本原、本体、规律或原理。在中国哲学史上，“道”这一范畴为道家首先提出。道的原始涵义指道路、坦途，以后逐渐发展为道理，用以表达事物的规律性。这一变化经历了相当长的历史过程。春秋后期，老子最先把道看作是宇宙的本原和普遍规律，成为道家的创始人。以后，在不同的哲学体系中其涵义虽有不同，但基本上成为世界本原、本体、规律或原理的代名词。

"Tao" is an important category in ancient Chinese philosophy, which is used to describe the origin, essence, law or principle of the world. In the history of Chinese philosophy, the category of "Tao" was first introduced by the Taoists. The original meaning of Dao refers to the path, the straight path, and later it gradually developed into reason, which is used to express the regularity of things. This change has gone through a rather long historical process. In the late Spring and Autumn period, Laozi first regarded Tao as the origin and universal law of the universe and became the founder of Taoism. Later, although its meaning differs in different philosophical systems, it basically became a synonym for the origin of the world, the essence, the law or the principle.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 03:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

1.儒家思想指的是儒家学派的思想，由春秋末期思想家孔子所创立。孔子创立的儒家学说在总结、概括和继承了夏、商、周三代尊尊亲亲传统文化的基础上形成的一个完整的思想体系。

Confucianism refers to the thought of Confucianism, which was founded by the thinker Confucius in the late Spring and Autumn period. The Confucianism established by Confucius is a complete ideological system based on the summary, generalization and inheritance of the traditional culture of respecting relatives in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道家的起源，可以一直追溯到春秋战国时期。道家思想的形成是以总结、发展、写著典籍为主要路径，每一次思想的跳跃都经历了极其长时间的众人积累，这也再一次的凸显了道家的生命力。

The origin of Taoism can be traced back to the spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. Taoist thought is formed with summary, development, and writings of classics as the main path. Every leap of thought has experienced an extremely long time of mass accumulation, which once again highlights the vitality of Taoism.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 孔子创立了以仁为核心的道德学说，他自己也是一个很善良的人，富有同情心，乐于助人，待人真诚、宽厚。“己所不欲，勿施于人”、“君子成人之美，不成人之恶”、“躬自厚而薄责于人”等等，都是他的做人准则。

Confucius founded the moral theory with benevolence as the core. He was also a very kind person, full of compassion, willing to help others, sincere and generous. "Don't do to others what you don't want to do to others", "the beauty of a gentleman, the evil of a man who is not a man", "bow oneself to thick and thin blame to others", and so on, are his principles of conduct.

Confucius founded the moral theory with benevolence as the core. He himself was also a very kind person full of compassion who is willing to help others with sincerity and generousity. "Don't do to others what you don't want to do to others", "the beauty of a gentleman, the evil of a man who is not a man", "bow oneself to thick and thin blame to others", and so on, are his principles of conduct.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。

After the founding of the people's Republic of China, through the democratic reform of the religious system, Chinese Taoism gained a new life and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the party and the government's religious policy in the new period, Chinese Taoism has shown an unprecedented new atmosphere, and has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

After the founding of the people's Republic of Chin, Chinese Taoism has gained a new life and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society through its democratic reform of the religious system. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party and the Chinese Government's religious policy in the new period, Chinese Taoism has shown an unprecedented new atmosphere, and has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

1. 孔子创建了对中国及其周边国家具有深远影响的儒家学派。他学而不厌,海人不倦,首开私人讲学,是中国历史上致力于教育事业的第一人。
Confucius founded the school of Confucianism, which had a profound influence on China and its neighboring countries. He was the first person in Chinese history to devote himself to the cause of education, as he never tired of learning and never tired of the sea.

Confucius founded the school of Confucianism, profoundly influencing China and its neighboring countries. He was the first Chinese throughout history to devote himself to the cause of education, for never being tired of learning and teaching. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 道家以道为世界的本原，以柔弱因循为道的作用，在政治上主张无为而治，因为对道和无为的理解不同，所以内部又划分为不同派别，不同的学派之间思想重心也不同，或偏于治国，或偏于治身等。
Taoism takes the Tao as the origin of the world, and the role of the Tao is to be soft and follow the path. In politics, Taoism advocates the rule of inaction, and because of the different understanding of the Tao and inaction, it is divided into different schools, and the focus of thought differs between different schools, either favoring the rule of the state, or favoring the rule of the body, etc.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==

1.中庸精神随着时间的推移，其价值和重要性必将日益显现出来，这一点已经有所表现。中庸之道是世界上最具有连续性的文化，也是中国众多文化流派中最具有价值的核心精神和观念。

1.With the passage of time, the value and importance of the spirit of the mean will become increasingly apparent, which has already been demonstrated. The Golden Mean is the most continuous culture in the world and the most valuable core spirit and concept among many cultural schools in China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:48, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

With the passage of time, the value and importance of the spirit of the mean, already demonstrated, will become increasingly apparent. The Golden Mean is the most continuous culture in the world and the most valuable core spirit and concept among many cultural schools in China.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

2.道教文学艺术就是以宣传道教教义、神仙长生思想以及反映其宗教生活为题材的内容的各种形式的文学艺术作品。文学艺术可以扩大道教的社会影响，进而提高道教的宗教素质。反过来，道教的神仙信仰也给中国文学艺术的发展巨大的影响。

2.Taoist literature and art are literary and artistic works in various forms that promote Taoist doctrines, the thoughts of immortal longevity, and reflect their religious life. Literature and art can expand the social influence of Taoism, thereby improving the religious quality of Taoism. In turn, Taoist belief in immortals has also had a huge impact on the development of Chinese literature and art.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:48, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
1.儒家思想对中国文化的影响很深。传统的责任感思想、节制思想和忠孝思想，都是它和封建统治结合的结果，因此，儒家思想是连同我们当代在内的主流思想。儒学在中国存在几千年，对于中国的政治、经济等各个方面依然存在巨大的潜在影响。

Confucianism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture。The traditional ideas of responsibility, moderation, and loyalty and filial piety are the result of its combination with feudal rule, and thus Confucianism is the dominant ideology along with our contemporary times. Confucianism has existed in China for thousands of years and still has a huge potential influence on all aspects of Chinese politics and economy.

Confucianism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture. The traditional ideas of responsibility, moderation, and loyalty and filial piety are the result of its combination with feudal rule, and thus Confucianism has been the dominant ideology along with our contemporary times. Confucianism has existed in China for thousands of years and still has maintain a huge potential influence on all aspects of Chinese politics and economy.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2．和谐文化建设是构建社会主义和谐社会的要义之一。中国传统道教文化对中国社会产生了深远的影响。在当今构建和谐社会的进程中,道教文化依然有其独特的存在价值。

The building of a harmonious culture is one of the essentials for building a harmonious socialist society. The traditional Chinese Taoist culture has had a profound influence on Chinese society. In the process of building a harmonious society today, Taoist culture still has its unique value to exist.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

The construction of a harmonious culture is one of the essentials of a harmonious socialist society. Taoist culture, a traditional Chinese culture, has exerted a profound influence on Chinese society. It still embraces unique value in today's building of a harmonious society. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
1.孔子学院是中外合作建立的非营利性教育机构，致力于适应世界各国（地区）人民对汉语学习的需要，增进世界各国（地区）人民对中国语言文化的了解。

Confucius Institutes are non-profit educational institutions jointly established by China and other countries. They are dedicated to meeting the needs of people in all countries (regions) for Chinese learning and promoting their understanding of Chinese language and culture.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The Confucius Institute is a non-profit educational institution established through Sino-foreign cooperation, dedicated to meeting the needs of people around the world for Chinese language learning and enhancing their understanding of Chinese language and culture.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。

Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the CPC and the government in the new era, Taoism in China has shown an unprecedented look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, reunification of the country and world peace.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party and the government's religious policies in the new era, Chinese Taoism has taken on a new and unprecedented appearance, making positive contributions to the economic development, social harmony, reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
1. 孔子去世后，其弟子及再传弟子把孔子及其弟子的言行语录和思想记录下来，整理编成《论语》。该书被奉为儒家经典。

After the death of Confucius, his students wrote down all conversations they had with their teacher and then compiled them into the Analects, which has been regarded as a classic of Confucianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

After the death of Confucius, his disciples and re-disciples recorded the words and thoughts of Confucius and his disciples and compiled them into the ''Analects'', which is regarded as a classic of Confucianism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 《老子》书提出以“道”为核心的哲学思想体系。它以道为宇宙的根本，阐述了道的本质、特点及其运动变化的规律。

The book Laozi establishes a philosophical system of thought with the Tao as its core. It takes Tao as the root of the universe, and explains the nature and characteristics of Tao and its laws of movement and change.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The book, ''Laozi'', presents a philosophical system of thought with the Tao as its core. It takes Tao as the root of the universe, and explains the nature and characteristics of Tao and its laws of movement and change.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

1. 南北朝时期（420一589）是道教进一步充实完善的时代，是道教走上成熟的时代，出现了众多的道教改革家、理论家，他们的活动对后世道教有着重要的影响。

1. The Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420-589) was a time when Taoism was further enriched, a time when Taoism came to maturity and numerous Taoist reformers and theorists emerged, having an important influence on the development of Taoism.

Taoism was further developed and came to maturity in the Southern and Northern Dynastie(420-589) when numerous Taoist reformers and theorists emerged and their activities had an important influence on the development of Taoism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2. 曲阜孔庙为纪念孔夫子而兴建，千百年来屡毁屡建，到今天已经发展成超过100座殿堂的建筑群。

2. The Confucius Temple in Qufu was built to commemorate Confucius, which has been destroyed and built again and again over the centuries. Today, it has grown into a building complex of over 100 palaces today.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The Confucius Temple in Qufu was built to commemorate Confucius, which has been destroyed and rebuilt again and again over the past centuries. Today, it has grown into a building complex of over 100 palaces.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

1.儒家的“德治”主义就是主张以道德去感化教育人。儒家认为，无论人性善恶，都可以用道德去感化教育人。这种教化方式，是一种心理上的改造，使人心良善，知道耻辱而无奸邪之心。
The Confucian "rule of virtue" doctrine advocates the use of morality to influence and educate people. Confucianism believes that no matter what human nature is good or bad, morality can be used to influence and educate people. This way of enlightenment is a kind of psychological transformation, making people good-hearted, knowing the shame and not being evil.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucian doctrine of "rule of virtue" advocates the use of morality to influence and educate people. Confucianism believes that no matter what human nature is, good or evil, morality can be used to influence and educate people. This way of enlightenment is a kind of psychological transformation, making people kind-hearted and knowing the shame but not being evil.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.“己所不欲，勿施于人”、“躬自厚而薄责于人” 等，都是孔子的做人准则。
"Do not do to others what you do not want to do to others", "self-respect and responsibilities to others" are all Confucius’s principles of life.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

"Do not do to others what you do not want to do to yourself" and "self-respect and responsibilities to others" are both Confucius's codes of conduct.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

3.认为天地万物都有"道"而派生，即所谓"一生二，二生三，三生万物"，社会人生都应法"道"而行，最后回归自然。
It is believed that all things in heaven and earth are derived from "Tao", which is the so-called "One life two, two life three, three life all things", social life should follow the law "Tao" and finally return to nature.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It is believed that all things in heaven and earth are derived from "Tao", which is the so-called "Two in one, three in two, three in all". Social life should all follow the law "Tao" and finally return to nature.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
1.孔子追求的“礼”，是西周时的等级名分制度。为了实现“礼”，孔子进一步提出了“正名”的主张。

Confucius's pursuit of " rites " is the Western Zhou Dynasty hierarchy system.In order to realize the " rites ", Confucius further put forward the " rectification of name ".

The "ritual" pursued by Confucius was the hierarchical system of the Western Zhou Dynasty. In order to realize "li", Confucius further proposed the idea of "rectification of name".--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象,为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。

Since the reform and opening-up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the Party and the government in the new period, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

1、孔子是中国思想史上第一个把道德作为做人和治国首要条件和最高标准提出来的哲人。道德的核心是仁。儒家提倡人与人之间的仁和礼。今天，在中国和其他许多国家，儒学的研究正在迅速增长。

Confucius was the first philosopher in China's ideological history to propose moral standards as the prior criterion for man's behaviour and governing a country.The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and courtesy among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is rapidly growing.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius was the first philosopher in the history of Chinese thought to put morality as the primary and highest standard for being a man and governing a country. The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and etiquette among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is growing rapidly. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

2、道教是中国固有的一种宗教，距今已有1800余年的历史。它深深扎根于中华沃土之中，具有鲜明的中国特色,并对中华文化的各个层面产生了深远影响。

Taoism, an inherent religion of China, has a history of over 1800 years. It is deeply rooted in the Chinese fertile soil with distinct Chinese characteristics, and have a profound impact on all levels of Chinese culture.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism is a religion inherent in China, with a history of more than 1,800 years. It is deeply rooted in the fertile soil of China, with distinctive Chinese characteristics, and a profound impact on overall Chinese culture. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

孔子在卫国住了约10个月，因有人在卫灵公面前进谗言，卫灵公对孔子起了疑心，派人公开监视孔子的行动，因此孔子带弟子离开卫国，打算去陈国。

Confucius lived in Wei State for about 10 months. Due to someone advancing slander in front of Duke Ling of Wei, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to publicly monitor Confucius. Therefore, Confucius led his disciples to leave Wei and planned to go to Chen State. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。

Daoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking "Dao" as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Daoism and the supreme gods, and building a huge system of classic Daoism gods. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Confucius stayed in Wei for about 10 months, but when someone slandered him in front of Duke Weiling, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to monitor his movements openly. Therefore, Confucius left Wei with his disciples to Chen.

2. Inheriting and developing the pre-Qin dynasty Taoist thought, it holds “Tao” as the highest belief, evolving the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, forming a huge system of classical Taoist arts and deities.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

1.在长期的教学实践活动中，孔子积累和总结了很多教学经验。他主张因材施教，根据学生的不同特点分别指导。

In the long-term teaching practice, Confucius has accumulated and summarized a lot of teaching experience. He advocated teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and instructing them separately according to their different features.

In the long-term teaching practice activities, Confucius has accumulated and summed up a lot of teaching experience. He advocates teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and guiding students according to their different characteristics.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为一种宗教实体，道教不仅有其独特的经典教义、神仙信仰和仪式活动，而且还有其宗教传承、教团组织、科戒制度、宗教活动场所。

As a religious entity, Taoism not only has its unique classical doctrine, immortal belief and ritual activities, but also has its religious inheritance, organization of religious groups, system of discipline and places for religious activities.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
1.孔子的经济思想最主要的是重义轻利、“见利思义”的义利观与“富民”思想。这也是儒家经济思想的主要内容，对后世有较大的影响。

The most important economic thought of Confucius is the value of justice over profit, the view of righteousness and benefit, and the thought of enriching the people. This is also the main content of Confucian economic thought, which has great influence on later generations.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 06:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius'economic thought mainly consists of the concept of justice and benefit, the concept of justice and benefit and the thought of enriching the people.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教哲学和宗教已经渗透到所有受中国影响的亚洲文化中，尤其是越南、日本和韩国的文化。在受中国文化影响的地区，各种宗教习俗让人想起道教，这表明他们与中国游客和移民的早期接触还没有被阐明。

Daoist philosophy and religion have found their way into all Asian cultures influenced by China, especially those of Vietnam, Japan, and Korea. Various religious practices reminiscent of Daoism in such areas of Chinese cultural influence indicate early contacts with Chinese travelers and immigrants that have yet to be elucidated.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 06:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Daoist philosophy and religion have infiltrated all Asian cultures influenced by China, especially those of Vietnam, Japan, and Korea. Various religious practices reminiscent of Daoism in such areas of Chinese cultural influence indicate early contacts with Chinese travelers and immigrants that have yet to be elucidated.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

解放前的道教中充满着浓厚的封建气息，对广大道教徒进行爱国主义教育，改革宫观封建经济，废除道教中的封建残余，与反动会道门划清界限，成为道教在新中国面临的重大任务。

Taoism before liberation was represents strong feudal atmosphere. It became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism before liberation was in strong feudal atmosphere. Therefore, it became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

孔子，姓孔，名丘，字仲尼，公元前551年，出生于春秋后期的鲁国。

Confucius is known as Kong Qiu, a combination of his surname and his given name, and he is also named as Zhongni, which is his courtesy name.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.儒教是孔子所创立、孟子所发展、荀子所集其大成，之后延绵不断，为历代儒客推崇，至今仍有一定生命力的学术流派。
Confucianism is an academic school which was founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and epitomized by Xuncius. It has continued to be admired by scholars of Confucianism and remined vitality until today.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。
Among the five major religions in our country, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by Chinese, so it is also called a local religion of China.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.身处乱世的孔子所主张的仁政没有施展的空间，但在治理鲁国的三个月中，使强大的齐国也畏惧孔子的才能，足见孔子无愧于杰出政治家的称号。

The benevolent government advocated by Confucius in troubled times has no room for display, but during the three months of ruling Lu State, the powerful Qi State also feared Confucius’ talents, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the troubled times, Confucius' benevolent rule had no room to be exercised, but in the three months he ruled the state of Lu, he made even the powerful state of Qi fear Confucius' talent, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。

Taoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking "Tao" as the highest belief, and evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoism and the highest gods, and building a huge system of classic Taoism gods.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism inherited and developed Taoist thought from the pre-Qin dynasty, taking "Tao" as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, and building a huge system of classical Taoist deities.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

1. 孔子63岁时，曾这样形容自己：“发愤忘食，乐以忘忧，不知老之将至。”当时孔子已带领弟子周游列国9个年头，历尽艰辛，不仅未得到诸侯的任用，还险些丧命，但孔子并不灰心，仍然乐观向上，坚持自己的理想，甚至是明知其不可为而为之。

When Confucius was 63 years old, he used to describe himself as, "(One is) so engrossed in his studies that he forgets to have his meals on time; so cheerful that he forgets all his worries; so youthful that he forgets his actual age." At that time, Confucius had guided his disciples to travel around the various states and nations for nine years. He had not been appointed by the feudal lord, but he almost died. However, he was not disheartened. He was still optimistic and insisted on his ideal even he knew it was impossible. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

When Confucius was 63 years old, he used to describe himself as, "(One is) so engrossed in his studies that he forgets to have his meals on time; so cheerful that he forgets all his worries; so youthful that he forgets his actual age." At that time, Confucius had guided his disciples to travel around the various states and nations for nine years. He had not been appointed by the feudal lord, and even almost died. However, he was not disheartened. He was still optimistic and insisted on his ideal even he knew it was impossible.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 作为中华文化最重要的两翼，道家和儒家的关系比较复杂，它们之间有互相学习的一面，也有互相对立的一面。

As the two most important components of Chinese culture, Daoism and Confucianism have a complicated relationship, with both learning from each other and opposing each other. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

As the two most important wings of Chinese culture, Taoism and Confucianism have a complex relationship. Specifically, they are mutually reinforcing and antagonistic.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
道教是中国的本土宗教，道教主张天人合一，东汉末年出现大量的道教组织。

Taoism is China's indigenous religion advocating the unity of heaven and man.The end of the Eastern Han Dynasty appeared a large number of Taoist organizations.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and it advocates the unity of heaven and man. A large number of Taoist organizations appeared in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

儒学思想，是先秦诸子百家学说之一。儒学文化是以儒家学说为指导思想的文化宗派，为春秋时期孔丘所创。

Confucianism is one of the schools of thought in the pre-Qin dynasty. Confucianism is a school of culture guided by Confucianism. It was created by Confucius in the Spring and Autumn Period.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism is one of the schools of thought in the pre-Qin periods. Confucian culture is a cultural sect with Confucianism as its guiding ideology, created by Confucius during the Spring and Autumn Period. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.儒家经书是四书五经，但儒家早期以五经为主，在佛教禅宗的挑战下，宋代程朱理学以四书取代五经的地位。

The Confucian scriptures are the Four Books and Five Classics. However, the early Confucianism was dominated by the Five Classics. Under the challenge of Zen Buddhism, the neo-Confucianism of Song Dynasty replaced the Five Classics with the Four Books.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The Confucian scriptures are the Four Books and Five Classics, but the early Confucianism was dominated by the Five Classics. Under the challenge of Buddhist Zen Buddhism, the Song Dynasty's Cheng-Zhu Theory replaced the status of the Five Classics with the Four Books.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The scriptures of confucianism are the Four Books and Five Classics, in which the majority is the latter one at the prelimetary stage, but then the Four Books got the upper hand under the theory of Chen-zhu in the Song Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.春秋时期，老子总结了古老的道家思想的精华，形成了道家完整系统的理论，标志着道家思想已经正式成型。道家是对中华哲学、文学、科技、艺术、音乐、养生、宗教等影响最深远的学派。

During the Spring and Autumn Period, Laozi summarized the essence of ancient Taoist thought and formed a complete and systematic theory of Daoism, marking the formal formation of Daoism. Daoism is the school of thought that has had the most profound influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health care and religion.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Spring and Autumn Period, Laozi summarized the essence of ancient Taoist thought and formed a complete and systematic theory of Taoism, marking the formal formation of Taoist thought. Taoism is the school of thought that has had the most profound influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health care and religion.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
1.孔子是当时社会上最博学者之一，在世时就被尊奉为“天纵之圣”“天之木铎”，更被后世统治者尊为孔圣人、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣文宣王先师、万世师表。

Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as "the sage of heaven" and "the mudor of heaven" during his lifetime.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius was one of the most erudite scholars in society at that time. He was honored as the "Sage of Heaven" and "Wood Duo of Heaven" when he was alive. The most sacred Wenxuan Wang Xianshi, Wanshishishi.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as "the sage from heaven" and is honored as "the mudor of heaven" nowadays.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。

Taoism has had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our ancient times and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our country in ancient times, and it is one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201215 cultexam 1

2020-12-20T05:02:13Z

Chen Jingjing: /* Facial Make-up - Chen Jingjing 陈静静 - 202070080581 - 英语笔译 */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Chinese Astrology - Alsied, Saffana==
"Chinese Astrology"--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED ,Student No:......... Major...........

===The History===

So, what is Chinese astrology anyway? Chinese astrology is an ancient art, which uses the time of birth, including the year, month, day, and time, to reveal insights into a person’s personality traits, lifestyle, health, career direction, and compatibility with others. Although the exact origin of the system is unknown, Chinese astrology has guided the Chinese for over five thousand years and has a profound influence on our lives. The Chinese system of zodiac is actually based on a ten-year Sun-Moon cycle that conforms to the ancient Chinese agricultural calendar. The cycle is divided into the five elements: Water, Wood, Fire, Earth, and Metal as well as the twelve animals, which represent each year. The system is influenced by Yin (female) and Yang (male) cosmic force, which is said to be an interpretation of universal harmony and balance. where the source is coming from ?

===The Five Elements And YIN/YANG===

Chinese believe that the five basic elements, Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water form everything in the Universe. As a fundamental part of the Oriental philosophy, the five elements are divided into Conducive and Controlling interrelationships. A Conducive interrelationship means that these five elements will produce one another and help nourish each other. We get Fire from Wood because fire is produced by burning wood. We get Earth from Fire because fire can burn everything into ashes (earth). We get Metal from Earth because all metal has to be extracted from the earth. We get Water from Metal because metal will change into liquid when heated. And, from Water we get Wood because water nourishes plants, thus producing wood. where is the quotation please?

A Controlling interrelationship means that these five elements can control or be destroyed by another element. Wood controls Earth because trees draw nourishment out of the earth. Earth controls Water because the earth can absorb water and also blocks the flow of water through man-made dykes or naturally occurring phenomena. Water controls Fire because the water is used to put out fires. Fire controls Metal because the heat of a fire can melt metal. And, Metal controls Wood because trees can be chopped down by the metal blade of an ax. Under this philosophy, no element is considered the strongest or weakest. Each element is either controlled by another element or can produce another element. In fact, they are dependent on one another and therefore, are considered equal. In Chinese astrology, during the complete sixty-year cycle, each of the animal signs is combined with the five main elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The element of your zodiac sign will exercise its influence on your life. where is the quotation please?

===THE FORCES OF YIN / YANG===

Since ancient times, the Chinese have believed that two major forces, the Yin and the Yang, control the universe. These two forces are the foundation of Chinese philosophy, people, and even Chinese medicine. Generally speaking, the Yin signifies death whereas the Yang indicates life.

A well-known symbol called “Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) embodies the Yin and the Yang. In the circle, the two forces equilibrate the energy and keep everything balanced. No force is stronger or weaker than the other, when one is at its highest, the other is at its lowest. Together the Yin and the Yang become a whole and thus keep the universe in harmony. where the source is coming please?

Chinese astrology was invented to achieve the two following goals;

1.) To predict the future,

2.) To determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.

According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu, and is still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology to predict one's fortune. Chinese Astrology Signs are based on the year that a person is born, with each of the twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs being represented by a particular animal. The twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs are; Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Lamb, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig. It is felt in Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year. where the source is coming please ?

Today, the Chinese Zodiac constitutes as a significant part of the traditional Chinese culture. At festive events paper-cut and New-Year pictures of the Chinese Zodiac are popular among the Chinese people. In addition, the Chinese Zodiac is also seen as the symbol of China itself, enforcing its vital role within Chinese culture, although the dragon is the most recognized totem of the Chinese nation. quotation please?

The Chinese Zodiac plays a part within people's religious beliefs in China. The 12 animals are divided into two categories of Yin and Yang, which are the underlying principles of Chinese philosophy and medicine by ancient Chinese people in accordance with the Five Elements (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth). A set of fortunetelling methods proclaim that the twelve Chinese horoscope animals decide people's, as a result, the Chinese Zodiac began to play a crucial part in people’s characters, friendships, marriages, careers, health, fortune and other vital parts of their life. Within Chinese astrology, it is considered that when a person comes to their attributed year, which is decided by the year when they were born, they must wear a red belt to pursue good fortune and avoid bad luck. This custom of 'Birth Year' is widespread throughout China.quotation please?

You might also be surprised to hear that according to some astrologers, your Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.

===Terms and Expressions===

1. Chinese Astrology 中国占星学

2. Chinese Zodiac 中国十二生肖

3. Agricultural calendar 农业日历

4. ”Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) “太极拳”（终极目标）

5. The Oriental philosophy 东方哲学

===Questions===

1-Why was Chinese astrology invented?

2-How Chinese astrology relates to a person’s divine destiny?

3-What important role does the Chinese zodiac play in Chinese culture?

4- What is Chinese astrology based on?

5-Is Chinese astrology accurate?

===Answers===
1. To predict the future, to determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.

2. A person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu.

3. The year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year.

4. The Chinese zodiac is a classification scheme based on the lunar calendar that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating 12-year cycle. The 12-year cycle is an approximation to the 11.85-year orbital period of Jupiter.

5. Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.

===References===

Ting, Julian (2014), 占星學量子, createspace, ISBN 978-149373455-9

何丙郁. (2003). ''Chinese mathematical astrology: reaching out to the stars'', Routledge, ISBN 0415297591

Sun, Xiaochun, Jacob Kistemaker. (1997). ''The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society''. Brill. 3-4. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.

Kistemaker, Jacob, Sun, Xiaochun (1997). The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.

""Almanac" "lunar" zodiac beginning of spring as the boundary dislocation? — China Network". 16 February 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2011.

Eberhard, Wolfram. (1986). ''A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols''. Routledge and Keegan Paul, London. 93, 105, 309.

"Five Elements(Wu Xing)". YourChineseAstrology.com

==Spring Festival Couplets - Cao Runxin 曹润鑫 - 202070080634 - 英语口译 ==
[[File:Chunlian.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Chunlian, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]

===Spring Festival Couplets===
Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. It is the most common and important custom when celebrating Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China.With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).

Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. Pasting the Spring Festival Couplets on gateposts or doors is one of the most common and important customs when Chinese People celebrate Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China. With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).

Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made of peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).

The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also traditions for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China.In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).

There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China. In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Zhang Yanchen 张砚宸. (2020). 中国春联的文化内涵与艺术特色探微 [The exploration of the cultural connotations and artistic features of Chinese Spring Couplets]. ''汉字文化'' Chinese Character Culture (19) 34-35.
*Li Wenyan 李文艳. (2018). 春联的演变历程及民俗价值 [The evolution and folk value of Spring Festival Couplets]. ''艺术品鉴'' Art Appreciation (24) 211-212.
*Qian Yu, Liu Tao 钱钰，刘涛. (2018). 从桃符到春联的演进——基于祝由文化兴衰的视角 [The Evolution from Taofu to Spring Couplets - A perspective based on the rise and fall of Zhuyu Culture]. ''民间文化论坛'' Folk Culture Forum (01) 75-83.
*Han Daqiang 韩大强. (2014). 论春节仪式中符号元素的文化意蕴——以春联、门神为例 [On the cultural implications of symbolic elements in Chinese New Year Rituals - Taking Spring Couplets and Door Gods as examples]. ''信阳师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Xinyang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) (05) 83-87.

===Terms and Expressions ===
Spring Festival Couplets, Spring Couplets, Chinese New Year Couplets, New Year Scroll 春联

Paste 贴

Horizontal scroll 横联

Upper scroll 上联

Lower scroll 下联

===Questions ===
1.What’s the purpose of pasting Spring Festival Couplets?

2.What’s the historical origin of Spring Festival Couplets?

3.How to read the Spring Festival Couplets?

4.How to do with the Old Couplets?

===Answers ===
1.To expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.

2.It originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty.

3.First, look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.

4.Remove the old scrolls until the next New Year or tear them off after the Lantern Festival.

==Instruments, Guzheng - Chen Han 陈涵 - 202070080580 - 英语笔译==

[[File:Guzheng.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Guzheng in the shop, photo by Christopher Hsia. Click[https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Even_more_Guzhengs_(%E5%8F%A4%E7%AE%8F)_cropped.jpg#mw-jump-to-license]for original source.]]

===Guzheng===

''Guzheng'' or ''Zheng'' is one of the oldest traditional ethnic musical instruments in China. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments. As early as 2500 years ago, ''zheng'' has become an important instrument and was widespread at that time. Due to the long history, its primitive simplicity and elegant sound, people are used to calling it ''guzheng'' (''gu'' refers to “ancient”). It has beautiful timbre, broad ranges, rich performance skills and strong expressive power, so it is deeply loved by Chinese. (Wang Xiaohong, Gu Haijun 2019, 69)

There are varied accounts for how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51).

There are different opinions about how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51).--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were originally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is approximately rectangular, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. As the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)

The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were oiginally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is about a rectangle, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. As the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:Fingerpicks.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Using fingerpicks to play the guzheng. Image from Baidu. Click[https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=古筝&step_word=&hs=0&pn=27&spn=0&di=9900&pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0&istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=-1&st=-1&cs=3246661627%2C3658564396&os=3335747328%2C3552694810&simid=0%2C0&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1718&fr=&fmq=1607348039297_R&fm=result&ic=&s=undefined&hd=&latest=&copyright=&se=&sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefined&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=0&oriquery=&objurl=http%3A%2F%2Fi2.hdslb.com%2Fbfs%2Farchive%2F6a84e824b3507f96cd3f55df9c2d38744bb81962.jpg&fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Ff_z%26e3Bojtk5_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Fojtk5AzdH3F%25Ec%25la%25bC%25El%25b8%25ln%25Em%25AE%25bA%25El%25ba%25l9%25Ec%25bF%25A9%25E0%25AD%25lD%3Fiwfet1j5%3D8%26fjw6viet1j5%3D8&gsm=1c&rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=&force=undefined]for original source.]]

The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke the sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the stings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)

The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made from materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke the sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the strings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, several other schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school. (Cao Yue 2002, 84)

Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, new schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school. (Cao Yue 2002, 84)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated a TV show—''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classic music competition show. In a performance, Wang played the ''guzheng'' to merge the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)

In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated a TV show—''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classic music competition show. In a performance, Wang merged the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'' by playing ''guzheng'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

From ancient times to the present, the charm of the ''guzheng'' has never diminished. The combination of cultural heritage and modern techniques has made this national musical instrument more radiant.

===References===

*Cao Yue 曹月. (2019). 古筝的主要流派与风格特征 [The main schools and styles of the guzheng]. ''东南大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Southeast University (Philosophy and Social Science) (04) 84-87.
*Duan Lili 段丽丽. (2006). 古筝的起源与发展 [The origin and development of the guzheng]. ''民族音乐'' Folk Music (01) 57-58.
*Gao Yiwei 高祎蔚. (2020). 浅谈古筝演奏中音色的体现及把握 [The embodiment and grasp of timbre in guzheng performance]. ''中国文艺家'' Chinese literary artists (05) 39+165.
*Jin Jianmin 金建民. (1988). 古筝起源之谜 [The mystery of the origin of the guzheng]. ''中国音乐'' Chinese Music (01) 51.
*Liu Xueqi 刘雪琦. (2019). 浅谈古筝的起源与发展历程 [The origin and development history of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (14) 83.
*Tong Guiying 佟桂影. (2017). 王中山古筝作品的艺术特征研究 [Research on the artistic characteristics of Wang Zhongshan's guzheng performances]. ''才智'' Talents (24) 197-198.
*Wang Xiaohong 王晓红, Gu Haijun 顾海珺. (2019). 浅谈古筝传承与发展 [The development of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (23) 69.

===Terms and Expressions===

*Meng Tian 蒙恬
*Zhao Lin 赵璘
*''Records on Words'' 《因话录》
*anterior mountain 前岳山
*posterior mountain 后岳山
*''Yan Zhu'' 雁柱
*string pegs 弦钉
*turning box 调音盒
*zither feet 琴足
*paulownia 桐木
*mahogany 红木
*''Dai Mao'' 玳瑁
*''Yi Jia'' 义甲
*''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo'' 勾、托、劈、挑、抹
*''High Mountains and Running Water'' 《高山流水》
*''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' 《汉宫秋月》
*''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' 《寒鸦戏水》
*''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' 《柳青娘》
*Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu, Luo Jiuxiang 王巽之、曹正、曹东扶、罗九香
*Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang 王中山、袁莎、周望
*''National Music Ceremony'' 《国乐大典》

===Questions===

1. What kind of musical instrument does the ''guzheng'' belong to?

2. Why the ''guzheng'' is deeply loved by Chinese?

3. Who is Meng Tian?

4. According to the legend, how did the ''se'' develop into the ''zheng''?

5. How many strings does the ''guzheng'' have? How long is the guzheng?

6. What is the function of movable bridges?

7. What are used by ''guzheng'' performers to play the instrument? And What are they also called?

8. In ancient times, what materials were the fingerpicks made of?

9. Generally speaking, how does the players strike notes?

10. What styles can ''guzheng'' be divided into?

11. Which school does ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belong to?

12. Do you know any other ''guzheng'' music? Please list some pieces.

===Answers===

1. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments.

2. It has beautiful timbre, broad range, rich performance skills and strong expressive power.

3. He is a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), and a legend says the early form of the ''zheng'' is said to have been invented by him.

4. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part.

5. It usually has 21 strings and is 163 centimeters long.

6. They are moved to change the timbres.

7. ''Guzheng'' performers use fingerpicks to play the instrument. They are also called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia''.

8. In ancient times, fingerpicks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade.

9. Performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges.

10. The Northern school and the Southern school.

11. ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belongs to the Shandong school.

12. ''Harvest Celebration'' (''Qing Feng Nian'' 《庆丰年》), ''Fighting the Typhoon'' (''Zhan Tai Feng'' 《战台风》) and ''Song of the Fishermen'' (''Yu Zhou Chang Wan'' 《渔舟唱晚》).

==Facial Make-up - Chen Jingjing 陈静静 - 202070080581 - 英语笔译==
===Facial makeup===

Facial makeup, a sort of makeup art used in stage performance, is painted on the face of traditional opera singers in China and varies when it come to different types of role. The character roles in Beijing opera are divided into four main types according to the sex, age, social status and profession of the character. Sheng refers to male roles and is divided into laosheng (middle-aged or old men), xiaosheng (young men) and wusheng ( men with martial skills). Dan refers to female roles and is also subdivided into various types. Qingyi is a woman with a strict moral code; and laodan is an elderly woman. Jing refers to the roles with painted faces. They are usually warriors, statesmen or even demons. Chou, clown, is a comic character and can be recognized at first sight for his special make-up.(Wang Hai 2018, 62)

The facial makeup of “sheng” and “dan” is quite simple with a thin layer of powder, called “plain face” while that of “jing” and “chou” is relatively complicated, and the former, in particular, is applied with heavy color and complicated patterns, thus gaining the name of “painted face”. In Beijing Opera, facial make-up, which is applied to Jing roles only, shows the character’s age and personality by using different colors. “Chou” is commonly called the clown as they are accustomed to wiping a patch of white powder on the nose.(Wang Hai 2018, 62)

People hold different views when speaking of the origin of the facial makeup. It is said facial makeup was closely related to a kind of dance, called Damian, which appeared in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and thrived in the Tang Dynasty. It was performed by a single man aiming to extol King Lanling Gao Changgong’s outstanding military service and merits. He was courageous and good-looking and was bound to win every time he worn a mask that seemed frightening in the battlefield. As for the facial makeup used in opera, it is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.(Cao Juan 2019, 58)

The legendary drama played a dominant role in Ming Dynasty, rich in content and fine in role division. Both jing and chou wear their own special facial makeup. The basic color is mostly designed based on the description in the drama literature or the singers’ personal imagination. For instance, facial makeup of Guanyu is red and that of Baozhen is black. Their brow and eyes are exaggerated in some way. The pattern ratio has changed as well. Unlike the Ming Dyansty, there are both simple and sophisticated facial makeups with the same basic color. In the Mid-Qing Dynasty, as the local drama arose, facial makeup varied greatly in different places and possessed distinct local features and folk characteristics. More than 300 kinds of dramas sprung up after the 18th century. Therefore, the drama characters mount and their division is much more finer. More colors like blue, green, yellow, grey and orange are added in jing.(He Weiwei 2015, 138)

Red

Red facial makeup is symbolic of loyalty, upright and integrity like the characters Guan Yu and Wu Han.

Black

Black facial makeup gives people the impression that the actor is serious,courageous and wise like Bao Zheng, a impartial official. It also stands for mighty force and boldness like Zhang Fei in drama the Three Kingdoms and Li Kuai in drama Water Margin of the Marsh.

White

White facial makeup bears a derogatory sense, indicating a deceitful and suspicious nature like Cao Cao in drama the Three Kingdoms and Yan Song, Qin Hui.

Blue

Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly like Ma Wu and Dou Erdun.

Purple

Purple facial makeup shows more sedate and righteous like Xu Yanzhao and Zhuan Zhu.

Golden

Golden facial makeup symbolizes dignity and power fitting roles like supernatural being such as Tathagata (Sakyamuni, the creator of Buddhism) and Erlang Shen (a Chinese God with a third truth-seeing eye in the middle of his forehead).

The features of facial makeup are mainly as follows:
First, it is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness.Second, it is closely related to the character’s personality.Thirdly, its pattern is stylized. Chinese Peking opera makeup is favored by many opera enthusiasts and is widely known both at home and abroad, having been regarded as one of the mark of traditional Chinese culture.
It is derived from the stage and could be seen on some large buildings, packages of some commercials, various porcelains and people’s clothes in different styles. It is far beyond the scope of stage use, showing its status in people’s heart and strong vitality. Out of curiosity and affection for facial makeup in Chinese opera, a great many foreign friends and Chinese of insight start to explore the mystery of it.(Cao Juan, 2019, 61)

===Terms and Expressions===

painted face 花脸

clown 丑角

Sheng 生

Dan 旦

Jing 净

Chou 丑

Qingyi 青衣

xiaosheng 小生

laosheng 老生

wusheng 武生

Gao Changgong 高长恭

legend，romance 传奇剧

Erlang Shen, Erlang 二郎神

Tathagata, Buddha 如来佛

Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Water Margin of the Marsh 水浒传

===Questions===

1.How many types are character roles divided into in Beijing opera?

2.What are the differences bbetween Sheng and Dan?

3.What are the special features of Chou?

4.What is the function of facial mask in Beijing opera?

5.What are the main features of facial makeup?

6.What are the characteristics of characters wearing blue facial makeup?

===Answers===

1.Four types:Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou.

2.Sheng refers to male roles while Dan refers to female roles.

3.A patch of white powder is wiped on their nose.

4.It is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.

5.It is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness and is closely related to the character’s personality and its pattern is stylized.

6.Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly

===References===

He Weiwei 何伟伟.(2015).浅谈京剧脸谱的色彩研究[Study on the colors of the facial makeup in Beijing opera].艺术科技 Art and Technology ,28(04):138-139.

Cao Juan 曹娟.(2019).中国京剧脸谱之考究[Study on Beijing opera facial makeup].中国京剧,(01):58-61.

Wang Hai 王海.(2018).京剧脸谱程式化特征与传统文化元素[Features of Beijing opera facial makeup and the traditional elements it related to].中国京剧 Chinese Peking Opera,(08):62-65.

==Literature, Science Fiction, and Fantasy - Dashkin, Gennadii - Student No.201911080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

=== Three Worldwide Famous Chinese Novelists of Modern Science Fiction and Fantasy===

Nowadays, modern literature is one of the most interesting and gorgeous sides of worldwide cultural processes. It heals soul and heart and can change everything to its best. However, it can be difficult sometimes to talk about literature without dividing it into genres. We can guess that the modern generation in the whole world prefers to read something about the future. Something, that can help to understand what will be next. And that is why one of the most popular genres are with no doubt - Science Fiction and Fantasy. So, let's see who are the most popular Chinese sci-fi and fantasy authors who broaden our mental horizons.

====1.Liu Cixin（刘慈欣）====

Liu Cixin was born in 1963 in Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, 400 kilometers from Beijing. Other famous natives of the area were Gaozu, the founder of the Tang Imperial Dynasty, and Jia Zhangke, the chief filmmaker of modern China. The parents of the future writer worked in a mine in Shanxi, and his first conscious years fell on the heyday of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). (Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America 2019, 1)

Liu received his technical education from North China University of Water and Electricity. After graduation, he worked as a computer engineer at a power plant in his native Yangquan. Now Liu Qixin is combining his studies of literature with the post of chief engineer of the China Energy Investment Corporation at the Nianziguan Power Plant.

Liu Cixin started writing relatively late. At 26, he wrote China in 2185, but the book never saw the light of the day. Mostly this was due to the consequences of the Cultural Revolution - in the late 80s, almost no science fiction literature was published in China. Later, when the opportunity arose to publish the novel, the writer himself re-read it, considered it second-rate, badly written, and naive, and decided that he did not deserve publication. However, Liu Cixin did not give up and in 1999 he released another novel, written by him at a young age, but significantly modified and edited for publication. This is how Liu Cixin's first big book appeared - the novel "Supernova Era". Before that, some of his stories were published in magazines, but the writer's name became really noticeable after the publication of this book. In it, as a result of the radiation of a supernova, all people over 30 are threatened with death within a year. Since then, the life of humanity has changed dramatically, and although the doomed older generation made heroic efforts to make the existence of young people better, a year later the world is plunging into an abyss of chaos and violence. (Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,352)

Liu's first books were warmly received in China, but nevertheless, the real success came to the author only in 2006, when he published the first part of his trilogy "Memory of the Earth's Past" - the novel "The Problem of Three Bodies" in the Chinese journal Science Fiction World. This book first made the writer a real star in his homeland, and 7 years later, when the Chinese-American science fiction writer Ken Liu translated it into English, and all over the world. The novel has become so popular that the entire trilogy is often referred to as "The Three-Body Problem," although this is not formally true.

Interesting fact: Such famous people as Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg called this book the best and recommended it for everyone to read.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In 2006, the book won the Galaxy Award, the main Chinese literary science fiction award, and after being translated into English, it was nominated for all three major world awards: Hugo, Locus, and Nebula. The novel only won the Hugo Award, but in 2017 the third part of the Eternal Life of Death trilogy took over Locus.

Liu Cixin is definitely a unique writer, with his own style, philosophy, and special vision of science fiction. So far, only three of his novels have been published outside of China, but he has already won such recognition that Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg recommend reading the Cixin trilogy. But the main thing that Liu Cixin has already managed to prove with his books is that science fiction literature is capable of giving generous shoots not only on the basis of European culture. Liu Cixin is the first person outside of the Western world to achieve resounding success in science fiction. And, perhaps, his trilogy is just the beginning of a new global phenomenon. After all, it's not for nothing that many experts have been saying for several years that the future belongs to China. It is very likely that this phrase refers not only to politics and economics but also to science fiction literature.

In this section, I would recommend adding authors whose books Liu Cixin recommends reading.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆） ====

Today this author is called by others the “Chinese William Gibson”. He can also be called one of the leaders of Chinese science-fiction and a cyberpunk novelist. He was born in China in 1981 in a seaside province in southeastern China called Guangdong, which borders Hong Kong and Macau. To say more accurately he grew up a few miles from Guiyu, the largest waste dump. Mountains of scrap electronics are shipped there every year from all over the world. Thousands of workers sort through the garbage in search of something that is suitable for recycling. This topic became the central topic in a novel called “Waste Tide”.

Also, by the early 2000s, Chen Qiufang had become a big fan of virtual chats and the Internet. He saw great potential in the Internet and technologies in general, an opportunity to change the world for the better. After graduation, Chen worked with Google, Baidu, and co-founded Noitom, a virtual reality startup in Beijing. As science fiction began to gain popularity in China and receive support from the government, Qiufan turned to full-fledged novels.

His debut book was ''The Empty Wave'', "combining realism and allegory to represent the hybridity of humans and machines." Chen Qiufan's novels and stories won three Galaxy Awards and twelve Chinese Nebula Awards. His works have been translated into German, French, Finnish, Korean, Czech, Italian, Japanese, Polish, and Russian.

His book ''Waste Tide'' became one of the most discussed books around the world and got universal acclaim from critics and usual readers. The fantastic mix of dark future with reality components made this book a guidebook for those who are worried about ecological problems and the darkest sides of human progress.

An interesting fact that can also be added: In a year he watches about 100 films and reads 50 books in any way related to science fiction and Cyberpunk.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.Rebecca F. Kuang (匡蘦秀)====

When Rebecca was four years old, her family emigrated to the United States from Guangzhou, China. Kuang's father grew up in Leiyang, in Hunan province, and his mother in Hainan Island.

Quang grew up in Dallas, Texas, and later went to Georgetown University in large part because of the college's discussion team. Quang began writing The Opium War when she worked as a debate trainer in China during a break from her studies. Rebecca always liked writing, but she was afraid that an education related to literature might not give her a profession in demand. But during the direct work on the book, she completed several literary courses. As a result, her first novel was published when she was only 22 years old.

Rebecca graduated from the university in June 2018. She further attended Magdalene College, Cambridge University as a recipient of the 2018 Marshall Fellowship, where she earned her Master of Philosophy in Sinology. She is currently pursuing a Master's Degree in Contemporary Sinology from Oxford University.

Her debut novel, The Opium War, is a war fantasy setting inspired by the history and culture of China. The Opium War is a dark fantasy genre. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century. The conflict refers to the Second Sino-Japanese War, but the scenery is inspired by the Song Dynasty. The novel accurately recreates the social, mythological, and philosophical realities of China of the chosen era.

I also suggest adding that she has been involved in several new projects at the moment, such as the well-known Star Wars. Can you write something about this?--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Don't forget to add sources at the end of each paragraph.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

1. Science fiction - 科幻

2. Fantasy - 奇幻

3. Horizon - 地平线

4. Broad - 拓宽

5. Hybrid - 杂种

6. The plot - 情节

7. Garbage - 垃圾堆

8. Heyday - 壮年

9. Supernova - 超新星

===Questions===

1. What was the first book written by Liu Cixin?

2. What is the most popular trilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?

3. Who is called Chinese William Gibson?

4. What is Rebecca Quang's Opium War plot based on?

===Answers===

1. Supernova Era

2. Memory of the Earth's Past

3. Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆）

4. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century.

===References===

1. Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/03/magazine/ken-liu-three-body-problem-chinese-science-fiction.html

2. Liu Cixin, Supernova Era, 2019. 352 pp.

3. Chen Qiufan, Waste Tide, 2019. 342 pp.

4. Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018. 530 pp.

==Stilts - Chen Yongxiang 陈永相英语笔译 202070080582==
[[File:stilts.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Stilts presentation during the Miliangtun Stilt Festival, image from Baike. Click [http://img3.imgtn.bdimg.com/it/u=2060438651,2837589998&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

===Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage — Miliangtun Village Stilts===

<center>Chen Yongxiang 陈永相英语笔译 202070080582</center>

====Introduction====

Stilt is one of the folk dances of the Han nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near. (Huo Linmo,2018)

Stilt is one of the folk dances of the ''Han'' nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty and bestowed by Emperor Qianlong. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing over 250 years ago. Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performance techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage. (Xingxing,2019)

As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from the "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing. It was bestowed by Emperor Qianlong, and has a history of more than 250 years. Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performing techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage protection project.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic in these funny characters. (Xingxing,2019)

The only serious character among the 13 roles is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords are his signature tricks. Others like the young boy, a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He plays the trick of going fishing because that's his character setting. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to accompany the performance and amuse the audience. (Xingxing,2019)

The show of Kylin Songzi (麒麟送子), which indicates good luck and peace, marks the end of the whole performance. Tuotou lies down flat, the young boy riding on his waist like a living lion. Mr. Plaster and young master raise their waists with Yupo dancing Yangko behind. Fisherman uses his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance. (Xingxing,2019)

The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are, Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic. Among the 13 roles, the only serious one is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords, that's his work. Others like the young boy, just a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He goes fishing because of his fixed character. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to amuse the audience. Gong-players following drum-players, handsome and ugly, they are just like the final fighters. Then it comes the show of Kylin Songzi（麒麟送子）after they stop playing; Tuotou lying flat; Mr. Plaster and young master raising their waists; Yupo dancing Yangko behind, pulling his two legs; Fisherman using his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth; the young boy riding on Tuotou's waist like a lion. Then it follows the routine of going downhill. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

As a renowned fair, Miliangtun Village Stilts is characterized by risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as Yasha Searches the Sea, Su Qin Carries Swords, squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. (Xingxing,2019)

Legs and feet of stilt-walkers must be agile. Jumping the large bench is quite demanding that normal players can hardly accomplish. The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. Stilt-walkers control the balance with waist. They must bend their knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. The upper body and their feet must be coordinated, and swing from side to side to ensure the balance when stepping on the wooden stilts. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing. (Xingxing,2019)

Miliangtun Village Stilts as a renowned fair,are known for the features of risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as ''Yasha Searches the Sea'', ''Su Qin Carries Swords'', squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. Legs and feet must be agile, jumping the large bench is quite demanding that normal players can hardly accomplish. Each of the thirteen roles has its own talents. Tuotou is an adventurous figure who leads the team. The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. The centre of balance is extremely difficult to grasp. One must bend his knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. Stilt-walkers control the balance with waist, and the upper body and their feet must be coordinated to ensure the balance. Stilt-walkers step on the wooden stilts, swinging from side to side. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair, which will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. As the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts stands out among the stilt fairs and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. It is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny, which is divided into lead in, head stilts command, and separation performance, forming into a fixed set of performance routines after long-term drills since the establishment. Miliangtun Village Stilts has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks.(Sun Miao,2018)

There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair. It will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. Today, Miliangtun Village Stilts as the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, stands out among the stilt fairs in Beijing and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. Miliangtun Village Stilt is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny. A fixed set of performance routines has gradually formed after long-term drills since its founding. It is divided into lead in, head stilt command, separation in formal performance. Stilts-walkers individually perform difficult tricks such as the big jump and the onion-pulling, then amuse and perform in separation, ending with the show of Kylin Songzi, which indicates good luck and peace. Miliangtun Village Stilt has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

====Terms and Expressions====

Miliangtun (village name) 米粮屯

stilts 高跷

intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产

folk dance 民间舞蹈

Toutou 陀头

Laozuozi 老坐子

young boy 小二哥

young master 公子

Mr.Plaster 药先生

Choupo 丑婆

fisherman渔翁

Yupo 渔婆

wood-cutter 柴翁

handsome and ugly drum-players 俊鼓和丑鼓

handsome and ugly gong-players 俊锣和丑锣

====Questions====

1. Where does Miliangtun Village Stilts originate?

2. How many years of history does Miliangtun Village Stilts have?

3. How many roles in Miliangtun Village Stilts?

4. When was Miliangtun Village Stilts listed as the intangible cultural heritage?

5. How long is the shortest and the longest stilts?

====Answers====

1. Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing.

2. More than 250 years.

3. 13.

4. In 2006.

5. The shortest stilt is two feet long, and the longest reaches over five feet.

====References====

Huo Linmo 霍淋漠. (2018). 高碑店市河头村高跷会考察与研究. [Investigation and research on stilts fair in Hetou Village, Gaobeidian City]. Hebei University. 河北大学.

Sun Miao 孙淼. (2018). "一跷多艺": 胜芳高跷会的舞体表征与比较研究. ["Multi-skills with one stilt": A comparative study of the dance style of Shengfang stilt fair]. ''长江丛刊'', (24)18.

Xingxing 邢星. (2019). 米粮屯高跷 Miliangtun Village Stilts. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%B1%B3%E7%B2%AE%E5%B1%AF%E9%AB%98%E8%B7%B7%E4%BC%9A/12762743?fr=aladdin

Intangible cultural heritage Miliangtun Village Stilts. (2019). https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1643344511003907548&wfr=spider&for=pc

--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:46, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

==Chinese Lion Dancing - Ding Daifeng 丁代凤 202070080583 英语笔译==

===Introduction===

Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of luck and good fortune. However, there is no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,77)

Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of good fortune. However, there was no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.

When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva to protect Buddha, people gradually have a good impression on it as a symbol of wisdom.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

There are a number of stories about the origin of lion dance. Here is one of the sayings. During the Ming Dynasty, it was said that a monster always damaged crops in Guangdong at the end of the year. Local people called it “Nian”. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.(Zhang Guobin 2019,157)

In lion dance, lions are made of colorful cloth strips, and each lion is usually performed by two people, one handling the head and the other moving the body and tail. Under the music of gongs and drums, performers dress up as lions and make various forms of lion movements. The lion dance is an art which combines martial arts, dance and music together. Originating in the Han Dynasty, lion dance has prevailed among Chinese people and spread throughout all over China since the Tang Dynasty. There are mainly two kinds of lion dancing in China: northern lion dancing and southern lion dancing.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

===Northern lion dancing===

The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur, and even the pants and shoes of performers are the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance is performed by two people. Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur even witrh the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance two people. Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:58, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

===Southern lion dancing===

Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom（AD 221-263）. Guan Gong lion performs bravely, Zhang Fei lion's action is rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion is calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing, dancers use different “Ma Bu” or horse stances, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom（AD 221-263）. Guan Gong lion is brave, Zhang Fei lion rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing through using different “Ma Bu” or horse stances by performers, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 10:02, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

Dancers usually perform the traditional custom of “Cai Qing”, literally meaning "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming. People use lettuces as greens and hang them with red envelopes. The lion dancers perform in front of the greens with hesitation, then finally jump up and eat the lettuces in one gulp. (Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

In recent years, in order to maintain the characteristics of the traditional Chinese lion dance, the southern lion dancing and the northern lion dancing complement each other and improve together. (Liu Xing 2019,39)

===Terms and Expressions===

Western Regions 西域

mount 坐骑

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

gong 锣

northern lion dancing 南狮

southern lion dancing 北狮

colorful silk ball 绣球

wooden stakes 木桩

spiritual resemblance神似

Liu Bei lion 刘备狮

Guan Gong lion 关公狮

Zhang Fei lion 张飞狮

sworn brothers 结义兄弟

horse stances 马步

Cai Qing 采青

lettuces 生菜

===Questions===

1. How long is the history of lion dance in China?

2. Why did people gradually accept lion as a sacred animal?

3. Why did people use lion dance to celebrate the New Year?

4. What is the main difference between southern lion dancing and northern lion dancing?

5. What is the center of southern lion dancing?

6. How many colors are there in the heads of southern lions? And what are they?

7. What is “Cai Qing”? And what do you know about “Cai Qing”?

===Answers===

1. It is with a history of about 2000 years.

2. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.

3. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.

4. The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion, but southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance.

5. It is in southern China’s Guangdong province.

6. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow.

7. It means "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming.

===References===

Liu Xing刘兴.(2019). 从文化结构看舞龙舞狮运动的现代化发展[Modern Development of Dragon and Lion Dance from the Perspective of Cultural Structure]. 体育师友Sports Teachers and Friends 42(04): 37-39.

Yu Zhaojie于兆杰.(2008).中国舞狮的起源及其发展演变[The Origin and Development of Lion Dance in China]. 搏击. 武术科学Wushu Science (06): 75-76.

Zhang Guobin张国斌.(2019).中国传统舞龙舞狮运动历史文化探索及传播研究[Research on the Historical and Cultural Exploration and Dissemination of Chinese Traditional Dragon and Lion Dance]. 散文百家Prose Hundred (10): 157-158.

Zhang Yanqing张延庆.(2003). 中国舞狮的起源与文化演变[Origin and Cultural Evolution of Lion Dancing in China]. 体育文化导刊Sports Culture Guide (11): 77-78.

==Literature, Tang-Song - Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉 202070080584 英语笔译==
===A. The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===
[[File:Tang Song Ba Da Jia.jpg]]

===Brief Introduction of The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===

The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and Three Su(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the ancient prose movement in the Song Dynasty, and Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the advacators of the "Ancient Prose Movement". Su Shi, Su Xun and Su Zhe are called Three Su. What else, Su Xun is the their father and Su Shi is the older brother. While Su Shi's teacher is Ouyang Xiu, who is also the teacher of Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25）

The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the ancient prose movement in the Song Dynasty, and Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the advacators of the "Ancient Prose Movement". Su Shi, Su Xun and Su Zhe are called "Three Su". What's more, Su Xun is their father and Su Shi is the older brother. While Su Shi's teacher is Ouyang Xiu, who is also the teacher of Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25）--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, they both advocated prose and opposd parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their sucessive waves of innovation of ancient ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)

In a word, they all advocated prose and opposed parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their successive waves of innovation of ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1. Han Yu'''
[[File:Han Yu.jpg]]

Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as “ The Decline of Eight Generations” by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasty. Han Yu was called “Han Liu” with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu’s poems as “ Du poem Han pen” by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as “ The Article Giant” and “ Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations” with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory. (Hou Benta 2014, 135)

Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was a native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as “ The Decline of Eight Generations” by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasties. Han Yu was called “Han Liu” with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu’s poems as “ Du poem Han pen” by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as “ The Article Giant” and “ Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations” with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory. (Hou Benta 2014, 135)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in advocating the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)

Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. Liu Zongyuan'''
[[File:Liu Zongyuan.jpg]]

Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong , now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong ", " Mr. Hedong ", also known as" Liu Liuzhou " because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Changan and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.

Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong, now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong", " Mr. Hedong ", also known as "Liu Liuzhou" because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Chang'an and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu ", with Liu Yuxi as " Liu Liu ", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu ". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)

He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu", with Liu Yuxi as "Liu Liu", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

He was a deep-thinking philosopher and litterateur, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude in writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)

He was a philosopher and litterateur with many wise ideas, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude to writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3. Ouyang Xiu'''
[[File:Ouyang Xiu.jpg]]

Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the “Liu Yi scholar”, which means that he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone. He was native in Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji’an city in Jiangxi province but born in Mianzhou, now Minayang city in Sichuan province.

Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the “Liu Yi scholar”, which means that he had ten thousand volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone. He was a native in Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji’an city in Jiangxi province but born in Mianzhou, now Mianyang city in Sichuan province.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Xiu’s poems, Ci and prose were all the crown of that time. His poetry was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style stressing on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was his representatives.

Ouyang Xiu’s poems, Cis and proses were all the crown of that time. His poetry was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style stressing on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was one of his representatives.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu’s ancient prose, and led the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, Ouyang Xiu not only drove away the odd style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation with his own unique style and high talent. It has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height. (Hou Benta 2014, 136)

Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu’s ancient prose, and led the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, Ouyang Xiu not only drove away the old style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation with his own unique style and high talent. It has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height. (Hou Benta 2014, 136)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''4. Su Xun'''
[[File:Su Xun.jpg]]

Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. In 19 years old, he married Mrs. Cheng. Later in 27 years old, he determined to study hard. After decade of hard work, he made a huge academic progress.

Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. He married Mrs. Cheng at the age of 19. Later when he was 27, he determined to study hard. After a decade of hard work, he made huge academic progress.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Su Xun was a man of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world ", to" apply to the present ". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Because he had a better understanding of that social reality and was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot. (Zhou Zhenfu, 2016, 27)

Su Xun was a man of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world", to "apply to the present". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Because he had a better understanding of social reality and was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot. (Zhou Zhenfu, 2016, 27)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''5. Su Shi'''
[[File:Su Shi.jpg]]

Su Shi, with a fame as " Dongpo Jushi ", was native in Meishan in Sichuan . He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty .

Su Shi, with a fame as " Dongpo Jushi ", was a native in Meishan in Sichuan. He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Su Shi has made great achievements in poetry, Ci, prose, calligraphy, painting and so on. He was regarded as one of the most outstanding man in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. His was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area, so he was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)

Su Shi has made great achievements in poetry, Ci, prose, calligraphy, painting and so on. He was regarded as one of the most outstanding men in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. He was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area, so he was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called “Su Men Four bachelors”.

Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage.(Zhangjian 2019, 1) Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called “Su Men Four bachelors”.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6. Su Zhe'''
[[File:Su Zhe.jpg]]

Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou , now Sichuan province. In the Jiayou second year (in 1057), he with his brother Su Shi climbed jinshi branch. Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He was good at politics and history. He discussed world affairs in some political works such as The New Theory and the Six States. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode , such as The "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)

Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou, now Sichuan province. In the the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), Su Shi, together with his brother, climbed jinshi branch. Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He was good at politics and history. He discussed world affairs in some political works such as The New Theory and the Six States. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode, such as The "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''7. Wang Anshi'''
[[File:Wang Anshi.jpg]]

Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo . He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province .

Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo. He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature aimed to serve the society first, that means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary propositions because his essays were mostly about the enlightenment of political decrees and suitable for world use. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)

Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature should aim to serve the society first. That means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary propositions because his essays were mostly about the enlightenment of political decrees and suitable for world use. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''8. Zeng Gong'''
[[File:Zeng Gong.jpg]]

Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In Jiayou second year (in 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng" , including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.

Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng", including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text. (Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple and little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments, for example, the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In these works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.

Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text.(Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple with little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments, for example, the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In these works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9. Comparison between the Ancient Prose Movement and Renaissance'''

Although there was seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the Middle Ancient period of Western history. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their respective cultures.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)

Although there were seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the Middle Ancient period of Western history. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their cultures respectively.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison in ideology:

The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the pre-Qin period and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome. (Wang Yaping 2001, 8)Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.

The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the pre-Qin period and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.(Wang Yaping 2001, 8) Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison in writing style:

The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient prose, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of the Tang Dynasty studied the simple language style of the pre-Qin period, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek period.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)

The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient proses, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of the Tang Dynasty studied the simple language style of the pre-Qin period, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek period.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison in literary form:

The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the six dynasties, but also laid a good creative foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language. (He Lei 2017, 159) While although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theory and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said :" Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)

The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the six dynasties, but also laid a good creative foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language.(He Lei 2017, 159) Although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theories and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said: "Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===B. Terms and Expressions===
The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters 唐宋八大家

Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties 《唐宋八大家文钞》

Ancient Prose Movement 古文运动

parallel prose 骈文

The Decline of Eight Generations 文起八代之衰

The Article Giant 文章巨公

Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations 百代文宗

Han Changli Collection 《韩昌黎集》

External collection 《外集》

The Teacher's Theory《师说》

Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties 先秦两汉时期

writing in classical Chinese 文言文

feudal provincial of Liuzhou 柳州刺史

official supervisor of imperial censor 监察御史

Liu He Dong Colloection 《柳河东集》

Northern Song Dynasty 北宋

a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions 金石遗文一千卷

Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties 三代

the crown of that time 一时之冠

Southern Tang Dynasty 南唐

Yu Feng 余风

The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong 《欧阳文忠公文集》

the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement北宋诗文革新运动

Heng Lun 《衡论》

Duke Jingguo 荆国公

The Book to the Emperor 《上皇帝书》

Dongpo Jushi 东坡居士

Ci writer 词人

Unconstrained Ci School豪放派

literary and artistic attainments 文学艺术造诣

the first all-round talent in ancient China 中国古代第一全才

Su Men Four bachelors 苏门四学士

the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council 《上枢密韩太尉书》

The New Theory《新论》

On the Six Kingdoms 《六国论》

Ode 赋

The Ode to Ink bamboo 《墨竹赋》

Seven Zengs of Nanfeng 南丰七曾

the doctrine before the text先道后文

the Book to Ouyang She Ren 《上欧阳舍人书》

the Book to Bachelor Cai 《上蔡学士书》

the Six Dynasties 六朝

===C. Questions===
1.Who are the pioneers of the Ancient Prose Movement?

2.Which kind of prose they advocate in the Ancient Prose Movement?

3.Do you know any representatives of Liu Zongyuan?

4.Why Ouyang Xiu is called "Liu Yi Scholar"?

5.What’s the relationship among Su Xun, Su Shi and Su Zhe?

6.Who are the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng"?

7.Do you know any about the Renaissance?

===D. Answers===

1.Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.

2.The prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties.

3.The "Liu He Dong Colloection".

4.Because he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone.

5.Su Xun is the father of Su Shi and Su Zhe. Also, Su Shi is the older brother.

6.Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.

7.The Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.

===References===
Fang Wenben 房本文. (2013). 士族兴衰与骈散消长—唐代古文运动发微 [The rise and fall of nobles and parallel prose- The subtleties of the Ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.

Hou Benta 候本塔. (2014). 论唐、宋古文运动中的韩愈与欧阳修 [On Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu in the Tang and Song Dynasties]. 三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Three Gorges University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition) 36(S1):135-137.

He Lei 何蕾. (2017). 中唐古文运动:社会转型背景下的文体之变 [The Ancient Prose Movement in the Middle Tang Dynasty: Stylistic Changes in the Context of social transformation]. 青海社会科学 Qinghai Social Sciences (03):156-162.

Lu Sihong 芦思宏. (2016). 略论中西文学的复古倾向—以唐代古文运动与意大利文艺复兴为例 [On the retro tendency in Chinese and Western Literature -- a case study of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang Dynasty and the Italian Renaissanc].中外文化与文论 Chinese and Foreign culture and literary theory (01):71-81.

Wang Yaping 王亚平.(2001). 论西欧中世纪的三次文艺复兴 [On the three Renaissance in The Middle Ages in Western Europe]. 东北师大学报 Journal of Northeast Normal University (06):1-8.

Zhangjian 张剑. (2019). 唐宋古文运动的文学维度 [The literary dimension of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 10-28(010).

Zhangjian 张剑. (2019). 唐宋古文运动的思想维度 [The ideological dimension of the Ancient Prose movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 08-26(010).

Zhao Kun 赵鲲. (2016). 中国文学中的两大文学变革运动—古文运动与“五四”新文学运动之比较 [A comparison between the two major literary revolutions in Chinese literature - the Ancient Prose Movement and the May 4th New Literary Movement]. 解放军艺术学院学报 Journal of Pla Art Academy (01):113-119.

Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (2016). 唐宋八大家论 [On the eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 中华活页文选(教师版) Chinese Loose-leaf Selections (Teachers' edition) (12):25-31.

==Music, Instruments, Pipa - Gao Mingzhu 高明珠 - 202070080585 - Translation 英语笔译==
[Please add your student no. and your major.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Pipa--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 08:22, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

===1. A Brief Introduction===

[[File:1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The structure of Pipa. image from 360Baike. Click[https://image.so.com/view?q=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&src=srp&correct=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&ancestor=list&cmsid=b749b87b72b5c9427d6560a39d41548f&cmras=6&cn=0&gn=0&kn=0&crn=0&bxn=0&fsn=60&cuben=0&pornn=0&manun=0&adstar=0&clw=247#id=22b2926be2637560e928bbc9318219fb&currsn=0&ps=58&pc=58]for original source.]]

Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. Being made of wood or bamboo, its speaker box takes the shape of half pear with 4 strings on it ,which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing）" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly using the left hand to press the string and the right hand to play. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank the first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020)

Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. It is made of wood or bamboo, and its speaker box is half pear-shaped with 4 strings on it which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing)" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly and presses the strings with the left hand and plays them with the right hand. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.The Development of Pipa===

The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: first, the Qu Xiang pipa（curving-neck pipa） was introduced into China in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important musical instrument; In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, turning a breakthrough in timbre and performance technology and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: First, the Qu Xiang pipa (curving-neck pipa) was introduced to China during the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important instrument. In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, making a breakthrough in timbre and performance techniques and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one way to play pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style .(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one skill in playing the pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. Chinese traditional instrument playing style melted in its playing characteristics, and the pipa made great breakthroughs in playing skills and artistic expression and other aspects. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but it had changed from the original plucking to pointing, and the posture of playing changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. And it was replaced by Chinese traditional instrument playing style with a major breakthrough in playing skills and artistic expression. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but its initial plucking style had transitioned to finger-playing, and the posture of playing the pipa changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and skills of pipa performance were more mature, and the playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the range of the audience of pipa performance changed from small to large. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and playing skills of pipa performance were more mature, and its playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the audience of pipa performance has changed from less to more. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene. (Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing pipa remained upright. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement of performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so not every class of the group can appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing the pipa also kept vertical. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement in their performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so the common people without cultural accumulation often cannot appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Pipa Schools and Their Chracteristics===

The main reason for the formation of various Pipa schools in China was that the southwards moving of economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North school and the South school. Later, the North school collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The formation of Pipa schools in China was due to the southwards moving of the economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North school and the South school. Later, the North school collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)The Wuxi school

The Wuxi school belongs to the original North school, and is different from the South school in terms of the tremolo. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi school was not as influential as the South school, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The Wuxi School belongs to the Northern School and differs from the Southern School in terms of finger rotation method. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi school was not as influential as the South school, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)The Pinghu school

The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu school's tremolo of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu school's rotation method of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(3)The Pudong School

Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both literary and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and so on.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both civil and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and rolling of four strings.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(4)The Chongming school

The Chongming school also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, The Chongming school pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuance in the slow, the order in the fast, and the soft and lively sound. In the aspect of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The Chongming school also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, the Chongming school pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuity in the slow, the order in the fast, and soft and lively sound. In terms of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(5)The Shanghai school

This school gathers the characteristics of each school and has its own characteristics. In terms of playing techniques, it has created many new fingering techniques and most of the emotional expressions are characterized by masculinity and unrestraint.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

===4.Traditional Pipa Music===

Traditional pipa music can be divided into military songs, literary songs and military-literary songs.

Military song emphasizes the playing skills and strength of the right hand. Its style is magnificent, generous and grand. The music focuses on narration being realistic and narrative. It is often narrated continuously according to the development of content and plot. It has a large structure, vivid and colorful plot, and distinct paragraphs.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) The representative repertoires are "Ambush on All Sides", "Bury Me High", "Hai Qing Hunting the Swan", "General Order in the Han Dynasty". [Maybe you could add the Pinyin version of these songs' names or add them into the terms and expressions so as to let readers know the Chinese.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound heart talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to with simple and moving melody or beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" and so on.

Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left-hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound inner talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to in a simple and moving melody or in a beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" and so on. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Military-literary song is the combination of martial song and literary song. The representative songs are "The Spring Snow", "High Mountain and Flowing Water", "Dragon Boat", "Flute and Drum at Sunset" and so on.

===5.References=== [References] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*[1]360百科 “琵琶”词条[The introduction of pipa on 360 Baike website].https://baike.so.com/doc/4922064-5141209.html.2020

*[2]邓思佳. 中国琵琶流派问题及特征[Schools and characteristics of Chinese pipa][J]. 艺术家,2020,(10):56.

*[3]周显顺,张玉莹. 浅谈琵琶演奏的发展史[A brief analysis of the development of the playing of pipa][J]. 黄河之声,2018,(16):56.

*[4]成玄歌. 琵琶不同派别与文曲、武曲的关系——以平湖派和浦东派为例[The relationship between literary songs and military songs and different schools of pipa----taking Pinghu school and Pudong school as examples][J]. 艺术品鉴,2020,(29):51-52.

[Please correct your format of your references.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Terms and Expressions===

*弹拨乐器—plucked instruments

*汉化—Chinesization

*套曲—divertimentoes

*游牧民族—nomad tribe

*宫廷乐—court music

*轮指法—tremolo

*音色—timbre

*曲目—repertoire

*并弦—parallel string

*指法—fingering techniques

===7.Questions===

1、How many stages did pipa go through during its development?

2、What characteristics did pipa have during Wei and Jin dynasties?

3、What changes had been made to pipa during Ming and Qing dynasties?

4、How many schools does pipa have and what are they?

5、Can you list at least 3 representative repertoires of literary songs played by pipa?

===8.Answers===

1、Four.

2、It still retained its strong western characteristics, and the playing way of it is unchained, heroic and simple.

3、The pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics.

4、Five. They are Wuxi school, Pinghu school, Pudong School, Chongming school andShanghai school.

5、"Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" .

[Please change your sections into the following form.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:02, 14 December 2020 (UTC)
===Terms and Expressions===

==Mythology: Huli-jing - Grosheva, Anna - Student No. 201921080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)==

=== Huli-jing figure in Chinese mythology and its analogs in Japan and Korea ===

The topic of werewolves in the XXI century is perhaps one of the most discussed and studied. Along with vampires and zombies, the image of werewolves is firmly entrenched in world cinema and literature. However, as a rule, speaking about the motives for the transformation of a person into an animal, most people have information mainly about lycanthropy, that is, about the specific transformation of a person into a wolf (werewolf). At the same time, the theme of werewolves is represented by a fairly large number of transformations of a person not only into a wolf but also into other animals. In Chinese mythology, one of the most popular werewolf myths is the myth of the Huli Jing, or werewolf foxes. In the Middle Ages, these myths were very popular and in-demand among writers. But what is the attitude of Huli-Jing in modern China? Are they given a place in modern culture, or do werewolf foxes now sound more like a kind of atavism or a children's fairy tale?

'''1. Huli-jing (狐狸精) in China'''

First, we need to recreate the image of the Huli-Jing and what was seen in ancient and medieval China. Most often, the Huli-Jing was presented in the form of not just a young, but extremely beautiful women. Interestingly, the image of werewolf foxes has been known in China since the times of the Xia dynasty and its founder Yu, who married a nine-tailed white fox who lived on Mount Tu.

People, especially women, believed that thanks to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to fight the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty that the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not completely eradicated in China. Probably, a more competent decision was made to give the werewolf woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor.

People, especially women, believed that due to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to resist the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty reign. That time the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not fully eradicated in other parts of China. Probably, a more competent decision in between acolytes area was made to give the werefox woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Perhaps the most striking examples of where the changed image of the Huli Jing is found can be called the stories of Pu Songlin about werewolf foxes. It is his stories, where girls are subject to the curse of turning into foxes, that reflect their position as hostages of their own life situations or even fears.

The theme of fatal love in the stories of werewolf foxes appears as a continuous line in Pu Songling, this suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their evil ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment.

The theme of fatal love in the stories of werefoxes appear as a continuous line in Pu Songling tales. This suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their savage ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Of course, the image of the Huli Jing as a mythological character by the 21st century was constantly supplemented with small details. We can say that most of the works of literature and cinema, in which the werewolf fox was encountered, for the most part, were very strongly romanticized. Remaining in its own way a relatively neutral character, Huli Jing nevertheless gradually becomes one of the most popular characters of many writers and screenwriters, not only in China but also in many other countries.
A striking and original example of where the Huli Jing appears is the work of the writer Ken Liu entitled "Good Hunt". The author presents not only a very interesting view of the Huli Jing but also explains why the legendary characters of Chinese mythology are gradually disappearing from the memory of the Chinese people.

In addition to literary works, Huli Jing is quite often encountered in Chinese cinema, as an episodic character or a protagonist. One of the most striking images of a werewolf fox can be considered the film "Painted Skin (畫皮)", where the main character is Huli Jing and must eat men's hearts to maintain her youth and beauty. This film is based on the story of Pu Songling and is one of the key works of cinema and modern Chinese culture, which fully reveals the tragedy of the werewolf fox.

In addition, Huli Jing is featured in a fairly large number of Chinese television series, each of which gives its own view of what character Huli Jing should be.

Quite a lot of information about werewolf foxes can be obtained from the TV series "The Legend of the Nine-Tailed Fox" released in 2016. The main interest here is not only a rather vivid description of the Huli Jing, which according to the plot are one family and are forced to seek and return to their place the sacred fruit from the magic garden. This, perhaps, is an attempt to provide an explanation of the true nature of werewolf foxes, who for a long time rushed from good to evil.

Summing up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the first Chinese dynasties, the image of werewolf foxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love.

To sum up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the ancient Chinese dynasties, the image of werefoxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But further the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The appearance of the Huli Jing, which rushes from good to evil for many years, has been romanticized and transformed, becoming a more positive character, although not devoid of some negative features.

'''2. Kitsune (キツネ) in Japan'''

In Japanese folklore, these animals have great knowledge, long life, and magical abilities. Chief among them is the ability to take shapeshift themselves; the fox, according to legend, learns to do this after reaching a certain age (usually a hundred years old, although in some legends it is fifty). Kitsune usually take the form of seductive beauty, a pretty young girl, but sometimes they turn into men. It should be noted that in Japanese mythology there was a mixture of indigenous Japanese beliefs that characterized the fox as an attribute of the god Inari ("Fox-messenger") and the Chinese, who considered foxes to be werewolves, a genus close to demons.

Other abilities commonly ascribed to kitsune include the ability to take possession of other people's bodies, to breathe out or otherwise create fire, to appear in other people's dreams, and the ability to create illusions so complex that they are almost indistinguishable from reality. Some of the legends go further, talking about kitsune with the ability to warp space and time, drive people crazy, or take on such inhuman or fantastic forms as trees of indescribable height or the second moon in the sky.

Kitsune are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari himself is sometimes depicted as a fox. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky.

Kitsunes are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari is sometimes depicted as a fox by himself. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

A kitsune can have up to nine tails. In general, it is believed that the older and stronger the foxes are, the more tails they have. Some sources even claim that a kitsune grows an extra tail every hundred or thousand years of its life. However, foxes found in fairy tales almost always have one, five, or nine tails. When kitsune are given nine tails, their fur turns silvery, white, or gold.

'''3. Kumiho (구미호) in Korea'''

Kumiho - (구 "ku" - nine, 미 "mi" - tail, 호 "ho" - fox - "fox with nine tails") is a folklore animal, the fox of which is first mentioned in the era of Gojoseon. According to legends, only a fox that lives for a thousand years can become 구미호. One of her superpowers is transforming into a beautiful girl. Although in myths there are also references to the becoming of a charming young man. In this form, the mythical animal fell in love with the opposite sex, and then ate their liver (according to some beliefs, and the heart). Why exactly the liver? We can say that the liver contains human energy, that is, we eat and receive the energy that our liver stores.

In a later period, kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever. There are several ways: 구미호 will not eat human flesh and kill for a thousand days. The second option is to eat the liver of a thousand men over a thousand years. The third - will live in a cave without sunlight, eating only wormwood and garlic. And also, if the person who recognized her as 구미호 in human form, keeps this secret for ten years.

===Terms and Expressions===

Shape shifter – 成精

Creature –生物

Seductive –诱人的

Damnation –诅咒

Metaphor –隐喻

Ascribe –属性

Indigenous –土着

Deity – 反面人物

Liver – 肝脏

===References===

1. Pu Song-ling. (2008). Fox charm. Monks-wizards. // Eastern literature. –2008. - P.280.

2. Liu, Ken. (2012). Good Hunting.// Strange Horizons. - 2012. - p. 431.

3. Kang Xiaofei. (2006). The cult of the fox: Power, gender and popular religion in late imperial and modern China//Columbia University Press. – New York, 2006. – Pp.269.

===Questions===

1. What was the attitude towards the Huli Jing in Ancient China?

2. Can we characterize Kitsune as a positive or negative character?

3. Could Kumiho become human forever?

===Answers===

1.Initially, in ancient China, Huli Jing was perceived in a negative context. Only later, towards the Middle Ages, the attitude towards them changed and people began to perceive them as victims of circumstances.

2.In Japanese mythology, Kitsune was not unambiguously good or bad creatures.

3. In a later period, Kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever.
References ..................

==Chinese Characters - Gu Dongfang 顾东方 - 202070080635 - Interpretation 英语口译==
===Chinese Characters===

===Origin===

Chinese characters, also known as Hanzi (漢字) are one of the earliest forms of written language in the world, dating back approximately five thousand years.According to legend, Chinese characters were invented earlier by Cangjie (c. 2650 B.C.E.), a bureaucrat under the legendary emperor, Fu Hsi. The legend tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu (today Shanxi) when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic system called zì—Chinese characters. It was said that on the day the characters were born, Chinese heard the devil mourning, and saw crops falling like rain, as it marked the beginning of civilization, for good and for bad.（Boltz, William G. 2003）

===Evolution of Chinese characters===
[[File:Character_Yuu_Semi.jpg|160px|thumb|right|A Dinging Table]]
Chinese characters from the earliest Chinese hieroglyphs to today’s simple characters have undergone through a very long process of development which can be divided into two periods: ancient writing and modern writing. Associated with these two periods, Chinese characters had experienced several times of evolution into many different script forms. Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC) is the earliest systematic form of Chinese characters inscribed on animal bones and tortoise shells. Then Chinese characters evolved through the bronze script of the Zhou Dynasty (1066–256 century BC), seal scrip in the late Zhou Dynasty and Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), official script in the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) and regular script. Based on pictographs, Chinese characters gradually developed from the form of drawings to strokes and from complex to simple ones.(Wang Xianchun 2002)

===Ancient Chinese characters===

====Oracle bone script====

Oracle bone script (Chinese: 甲骨文, Pinyin: jiăgŭwén) is the inscription on animal bones and tortoise shells of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC). It was first excavated by the local farmers in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province and was sold as a kind of traditional Chinese medicine called “long” (dragon bones).

====Bronze script====

In the “Age of Bronze Ware” of China during the period of Shang and Zhou Dynasties, bronze ware was cast as a container, and most often as the sacrificial vessels to inscribe great events such as sacrifice, battle results, trade of slaves, etc. in a style just like the oracle bone script. In the Shang Dynasty, the inscriptions on bronze ware had very few characters, the form of which is extremely close to that of the oracle bone script. The size, complexity, formation of the Chinese characters are inconsistent. However, in the Zhou Dynasty, the characters in bronze inscriptions were simpler, and the size and formation were more fixed. The bronze inscriptions looked like drawings but had made significant progress from pictographic forms to block-shaped linear words we use today.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

====Seal script====
Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) begun to be used in Qin State. This script was usually written on bamboo slips and pieces of silk or inscribed on rocks and stones. Owing to the regular and symmetric structure, rounded and graceful lines, it is deemed to be the most beautiful style of characters in ancient China by calligraphers. It is still used for inscribing names on a seal today. There are two kinds of seal script: large or great seal script and lesser or small seal script.The large seal script (Chinese: 大篆, Pinyin: dàzhuàn) is a traditional reference to all types of Chinese writing systems used before the Qin Dynasty. However, due to the lack of research achievements and precision, scholars often avoid the large seal script, instead of using more specified terms to the examples of writing. The large seal script was widely used in many vassal states in the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC).After the Qin State conquered the other six states and established the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), Emperor Qinshihuang unified characters in order to strengthen his control. Based on the Large Seal script and rearranging the variant forms of characters in each state, the unified characters were decreed, called lesser or small seal script (Chinese: 小篆, Pinyin: xiăozhuàn) which was the official style of characters in Qin Dynasty used for all the documents of the government. It was the result of the first extensive simplification and standardization of Chinese characters. Compared with the oracle bone script and bronze script, in the lesser seal script, the forms of characters were simpler, the writing method was consistent, and the character pattern was more orderly.
The Ancient Writing Period, from the earliest known oracle bone script to the development of the seal script, lasted about 1,160 years. And the lesser seal script marked the end of the ancient Chinese characters.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) began to be used in Qin State.
and all of the above three points ignored the quote, please add them up.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Modern characters===
====Clerical script====

After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people.Because of its lengthened and curved lines, it took more time to write.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Regular script====

Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people generation after generation even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage.

Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people for generations even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage. （ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
===Formation of Chinese characters===

====Pictograms====

Contrary to popular belief, pictograms make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include 日 (rì) for "sun," 月 (yuè) for "moon," and 木 (mù) for "tree."

====Pictophonetic compounds====

Also called semantic-phonetic compounds, or phono-semantic compounds, this category represents the largest group of characters in modern Chinese. Characters of this sort are composed of two parts: a pictograph, which suggests the general meaning of the character, and a phonetic part, which is derived from a character pronounced in the same way as the word the new character represents.Examples are 河 (hé) river, 湖 (hú) lake, 流 (liú) stream, 冲 (chōng) riptide, 滑 (huá) slippery. All these characters have on the left a radical of three dots, which is a simplified pictograph for a water drop, indicating that the character has a semantic connection with water; the right-hand side in each case is a phonetic indicator.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
====Ideograph ====

Also called a simple indicative, simple ideograph, or ideogram, characters of this sort either add indicators to pictographs to make new meanings, or illustrate abstract concepts directly. For instance, while 刀 (dāo) is a pictogram for "knife," placing an indicator in the knife makes 刃 (rèn), an ideogram for "blade." Other common examples are 上 (shàng) for "up" and 下 (xià) for "down." This category is small, as most concepts can be represented by characters in other categories.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
====Logical aggregates====

Also translated as associative compounds, characters of this sort combine pictograms to symbolize an abstract concept. For instance, 木 (mu) is a pictogram of a tree, and putting two 木together makes 林 ,meaning forest. Combining 日 (rì) sun and 月(yuè) moon makes 明(míng) bright, which is traditionally interpreted as symbolizing the combination of sun and moon as the natural sources of light. quote missing--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Associate transformation====

Characters in this category originally didn't represent the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, 考 (kǎo) to verify and 老 (lǎo) old were once the same character, meaning "elderly person," but detached into two separate words. Characters of this category are rare, so in modern systems this group is often omitted or combined with others.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

Also called phonetic loan characters, this category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as 自 (zì), which has lost its original meaning of nose completely and exclusively means oneself, or 萬 (wan), which originally meant scorpion but is now used only in the sense of ten thousand.(Liu Youxin)

===Simplification of Chinese characters===

The use of traditional Chinese characters versus simplified Chinese characters varies greatly, and can depend on both the local customs and the medium. Before the official reform, character simplifications were not officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing of the writer.(简化字的昨天、今天和明天. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2010.)
===Terms and expressions===

1.Oracle Bone Inscriptions 甲骨文

2.Bronze Inscriptions 金文

3.Small seal characters 小篆

4.Official script 隶书

5.Regular script 楷书

6.Cursive writing 草书

7.Cang Jie 仓颉

8.Clerical script 楷书

9.Su Shi 苏轼

10. Wang Xizhi 王羲之

11.Ou Yangxun 欧阳询

12.Yan Zhenqing 颜真卿

13.Pictograms 象形

14. Pictophonetic compounds 指事

15.Ideograph 会意

16.Logical aggregates 形声

17.Associate transformation 转注

18.Borrowing 假借

===Question===
1.How many Chinese characters are there?

2.How many letters are in the Chinese alphabet?

3. How many formations of Chinese characters? What are they?

===Answers===
1. According to the latest statics, there are nearly 91251 Chinese characters recorded .

2. There are 26 letters in Chinese alphabet.

3. Six formations are included in Chinese characters system, and they are Pictograms
Pictophonetic compounds,Ideograph, Logical aggregates, Associate transformation,Borrowing

===References===

1.王显春. 汉字的起源[M]. 学林出版社, 2002.

2.刘又辛. "关于汉字发展史的几个问题(上)." 语文建设 12(1998):34-37.

3.Boltz, William G. 2003. The origin and the development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental series), v. 78. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. ISBN 0940490188

4.Chinese Characters, Chinese Culture and Chinese Mind . Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia, https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/12-Yuxin-Jia-Xuerui-Jia.pdf,2005.

==Handcraft - Chinese Knots - Guan Qinqing 管钦清 - Student No.20207080586 - 英语笔译==

===A.Chinese Knots===

====1.A Brief Introduction about Chinese Knots====

The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.It originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, to the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft.The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronzes of the Warring States Period.（Li Ku 2016，125）

The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization. It
originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, into the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft. The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronze of the Warring States Period.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now,Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decoration and aesthetics,which
earned the knot its name.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002,38）

The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now, Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decorations and aesthetics, which
earned the knot as its name.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The Classification of Chinese Knots====

There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）,Good Luck Knot（吉祥
结）,Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）,Sauvastika Knot（万字结）,Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）,Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）,Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）,Caisson Celling Knot（藻井
结）,Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.（Li Ku 2016，125）

There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot. They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）, Good Luck Knot（吉祥
结）, Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）, Sauvastika Knot（万字结）, Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）, Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）, Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）, Caisson Celling Knot（藻井
结）, Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots,which are the Double Coin Knot,the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot.

Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots, which are the Double Coin Knot, the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1.The Double Coin Knot=====

Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture,politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views on coins are not limited on their prices but value, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. Money in China not only represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. Every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money".（ Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，40）

Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture, politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views on coins are not limited on their prices but values, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. Money in China not only represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. On every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money". --[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, for the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes "good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc. （Li Ku 2016，126）

Therefore, for the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes "good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.The Good Luck Knot=====

As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and is also one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.
And the knot shape is beautiful,varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.（Wu Hongfang 2004,120）

As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.
And the knot shape is beautiful, varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3.The Pan Chang Knot=====

Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people. Pan Chang (盘长） is a symbol of the origin of all things, and is one of the most important basic knots. It is
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，44）

Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people.As is a symbol of the origin of all things, Pan Chang (盘长）is one of the most important basic knots. It is
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The Knitting Method of Chinese Knots====

The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots.The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots ,so as to make a group of varied knots.（Xu Xing 2004,46）

The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots. The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots, so as to make a group of varied knots.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then determine its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art.（Xu Xing 2004,47）

The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art. --[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Knots====

Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of
rope and thread.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of
Dragons.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,44）

Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of
rope and thread. In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of
Dragons.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.

Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.Comparisons between Chinese Knots and Cross Necklaces====

=====5.1.Different Cultural Connotations=====

From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot generally have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace,however, is symbolic of
Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient
Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners.Therefore,such cross
ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,45）

From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace, however, is symbolic of Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners. Therefore,such cross ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====5.2.Different Shapes=====

Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have
different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.（Xu Xing 2004,47）

Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====6.References====

*Li Ku 李库. (2016). 符号学视角下的中国结解读 [The Analysis of Chinese Knots from the Perspective of Semiology ]. ''艺海'' Yi Hai (08) 125-126.

*Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 李立芳，孙建君. (2002). ''民间绳结'' [Folk Knots]. Wuhan: Hubei Fine Arts Publishing House 湖北美术出版社.

*Xu Xing 许星. (2004). 路论中国结 [On the Chinese Knots]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (02) 46-47.

*Wu Hongfang 邬红芳. (2004). 中国结的意象美学特征 [The Rhetorical-Beauty of Chinese Knots]. ''装饰'' Decoration (09) 120-121.

*Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian王眯珠,孙荪,曲洪建. (2014). 怀旧心理与创新意识对中国结的影响分析[The Analysis of the Impact on Chinese Knots from Reminiscence and Consciousness of Innovation ]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (11) 43-50.

===B. Terms and Expressions===

Double Coin Knot 双钱结

Good Luck Knot 吉祥结

Chinese Button Knot 纽扣结

Sauvastika Knot 万字结

Oxalis Knot 酢浆草结

Pan Chang Knot 盘长结

Round Brocade Knot 团锦结

Caisson Celling Knot 藻井结

Cross Knot 十字结

Ping Knot 平结

tie the knot 永结同心

luck money 压岁钱

the bishop's identity 主教职权

===C. Questions===

1. What is the Chinese knot?

2. Do you know the names of the main Chinese knots? What are they?

3. What do "绳" and "结" mean in Chinese culture?--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 13:04, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.

2.There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot,Good Luck Knot,Chinese Button Kno,Sauvastika Knot,Oxalis Knot,Pan Chang Knot,Round Brocade Knot,Caisson Celling Knot,Cross Knot and Ping Knot.

3.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of "knot", which means reunion and happiness.

==Literature, Chinese Mythology, Guirou, Barthelemy, Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies 201921080010==
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the right order of your title should be category, topic, name, student number

[[File:Chinese Mythology.jpg|thumb|right|Panku]]

===Introduction===

The Chinese’s life is full of mythological traditions such as, the creation of universe, science, literature, philosophy, dragons, tortoises, phoenixes, unicorns, birds, and flowering fruit trees etc. This myth is characterized by the interaction of the pros and cons, yin and yang, good and evil, light and dark, male and female, heaven and earth, strong and weak and so forth. Panku was an important figure in Chinese mythology, the first living being and the creator of universe in some versions of Chinese mythology.(Su Shuyang 2010, 2). In world mythology; every peoples have it own myths, different fairy tales, but there is some similarities in common.

===A. Panku Created the World===

In the beginning, the world didn’t exist; there wasn’t sky, earth, water, animals, birds, plants, human, in other word, the universe was empty. The force of universe was concentrated inside a mysterious egg. This egg, after growing many years, it becoming a big form of ball and finally give birth to Panku. Panku, who was deeply sleeping in peace in his eggshell for eighteen thousand years, finally awaken by the chaos of the exterior movement and try to calm down. Therefore, the sky and the earth were created. His body was well-formed with giant muscular and the size of his body was about ninety thousand li (about thirty thousand miles), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).

At that moment the sky and the earth was very close and Panku couldn’t fully stand on his limbs, then Panku pushed the sky with his two hands to farther away from the sky. As time was passing, the sky and earth become farther from each other and the size of Panku increasing within. The size of Panku became enormous, 90,000 "li" (45,000 kilometer) was the high distance between the sky and the earth, that is why today we talk about “ Nine- Layer Sky.” For many centuries Panku pushed the sky with all the forces of his body to avoid the chaos, hence, he cried for help but no one helped him because he was alone in the world. He struggled for ten thousand years until the sky and earth was completely separated into the forces of yin (dark) and yang (light), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).
Slowly, he became weaker and older, and then he felt down on the ground and his body became a mighty crash. Thus, his right eye became the moon and his left eye became the sun; his head and limbs became mountains; his blood vessels became seas and rivers, his flesh became fertile lands; his hair became trees, grass, flowers; his teeth and bones became treasures (gold, metals, silver, copper); his sweat and tear represent the rain; his voice represent thunder and lightning and his breath represent winds and clouds. Finally; he finished his work, Panku, the creator of the world was dead and left behind him a landscape.

===B. NuWa Created Human Beings===

[[File:Picture 2.jpg|thumb|right|Fushi and Nuwa]]

Nuwa, was created out of earth from Panku flesh, was a goddess in Chinese mythology or viewed as old grandmother with a body of snake and human face. She was the creator and ancestor of human beings who appeared in the world after Pangu’s death (Su Shuyang 2010, 5).

As she was the only human living beings in the world, by the passing time, she felt lonely and decided to create human to her image in order to feel more comfortable to her world. Thus, she was seated down thinking about her new project of creating human beings and finally she got an idea. Then she created human beings by kneading mud with human forms and then these “mud figures” became alive. They started walking, speaking, sing, dancing, laughing and endowed with a human beings capacity (Su Shuyang 2010, 5, 6). Nuwa was very happy with her news creatures who surrounding him by crying our Mum. Then, she continued to create days and nights during a long period until she got tired. Hence, they were spread out everywhere; on the mountains, on the hills, near the rivers, on the straight spaces etc.

During a long period of years, Nuwa and her creatures were living together without any particular distinction about man and woman and any marriage. As time was passing; people were getting old and dying one after other, so, Nuwa started to worry about her offspring, what the world will be after all the men would have died. Nuwa then divided men and women and taught them marriage and how to reproduce between couples in order the lineage of mankind will never end. She gave her best wishes and advises to human beings, and since then, people continue to marry and give birth.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:09, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the source is missing

===C. Fushi Taught the People===

In Chinese mythology, it is generally said that the rulers were half-gods and half humans and they could change their shapes of state, either in animal or in human being. According to Chinese myths; the rulers didn’t die, when their time on the earth expired they ascended to the heavens to have a rest. Fushi was the first who taught to people how to survival on the earth such as: hunting, using fire, writing etc. (Irene Dea Collier,2001, 33). In some stories Fushi was the husband of Nuwa, whereas in some other it wasn’t. Anyway they are an important figures of Chinese civilization .

Fushi noticed that the new world (people) couldn’t support to the difficulties of the life and decided to help them thanks to his supernatural powers. He taught them how to make a fish net by twisting plants fibers and form ropes. With these ropes, he wove a fish net to fish fishes in water and feed people, and with these ropes also people could across mountain peaks to search food. Then, before people were eating raw meat or fish but Fushi showed them how to use fire by twirling two willow sticks together. Moreover, Fushi taught them many things including agriculture, breeding, security, music, healing and many else. As time was passing; Fushi getting old, and he knew that he could not live for ever , then he decided to create a system of writing "trigrams", in order people can learn and remember about his teachings for better life. He designed some kind of marks onto turtle shells, bamboo sticks and animal bones which became later words and numbers (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35, 36). This "trigrams" was also a mean to interpret future and consult oracle about the right ways to follow.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:24, 20 December 2020 (UTC)to write the in the way of (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35-36),that's better.

Finally, Fushi gave his last gift (music) in order people can live in harmony and peace after him. So, Fushi taught them how to make musical instrument and use it, a "pipa" (lute), (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 39).That is why, music has a great importance in Chinese history. Each time we play music, it reminds us to Fushi great teachings. Fushi’s time took end on the earth and finally he ascended to heavens hoping that his disciples (humans) live in peace.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the source is missing.

===D. Water War===

Territorial conquest or extension of a territory was a preoccupation of each ruler since the beginning of the world and still now is one of the sources of conflicts in the world. So, Gong, god of water fought against Zurong, god of fire to extend his territory. Historically, both have terrible tempers and described as a very big giants with different shapes, Gong shown with a snake’s body and a human face with red hair. Meanwhile Zurong shown with a massive human body with broad shoulders, red skin, and a red beard (Irene Dea Collier 2001,44).

Gong poked the earth with bouts of rain and floods which caused damages included on people, houses, animals, trees and many others living beings. People and others gods asked him to stop destroying but Gong remained pitiless and severe to their inquiries. Zurong, god of fire who ruled the earth in peace before Gong, finally intervened to stop him. So Zurong challenged Gong to regain the control of the earth. Firstly, they started to wrestle on the sky for many days, as both of them were using their supernatural powers, the sky shook with thunder, and lightning flashed across the sky. Then, they got down in the earth to continue fighting but fortunately Gong and his army were defeated and all the people and gods rejoiced Gong’s defeat. Since then, the world is full of conflicts and insecurities (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48, 49).--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:22, 20 December 2020 (UTC)to write the in the way of (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48-49),that's better.

In summary, like many mythologies, Chinese mythology has been recorded in oral form in literature from various regional and cultural traditions. China is the home of many mythological traditions which involves the creation of world, gods, deities, supernatural powers, culture, people, houses, cooking writing, ancestors etc.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the source is missing.

===E. Terms and Expressions===

Chinese Mythology 中国神话

Panku 盤古

Yin/Yang 陰陽 / 阴阳

Nuwa 女媧

Fushi 伏羲

Water War 水战

===F. Questions===

1. Why an egg a good symbol for the beginning of the world?

2. Why Nuwa decided to create human beings?

3. What did Fushi taught to people?

4. What was the cause of Gong and Zurong’s war and who won?

===G. Answers===

1. Because egg is the symbol of life and many creatures are born from the eggs, even its physical form is round like the world and it contains necessary elements to create a life.

2. Firstly, for companionship and secondly to guarantee her offspring by teaching them the importance of marriage and how to feed and raise their children. She also wanted to humans to live independently without help of god.

3. He taught to people how to live conveniently such as: fishing, how to make fire, cooking food and meat with fire, oracle consulting, and how to make and use lute.

4. Gong wanted to extend his territory which resulted to water damage and Zurong intervened and defeated him by wrestling.

===References===

1. Su Shuyang. (2010).''CHINA: Insight Traditions and Culture''.(Youth Edition). DOLPHIN BOOKS China International Publishing Group.

2. Irene Dea Collier. (2001). "Chinese Mythology". Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data.

3. https://pic.17qq.com/uploads/ijbphegbibz.jpeg

4. https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Pangu-lifting-heaven-picture.jpg--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 13:08, 15 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 06:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the way of reference-listing is not standard.

==Gods and Immortals - Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587 英语笔译==

===Chinese gods and immortals===

====Chinese mythology system====

Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, p. 71 )

Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or literature records, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, 71 )--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, p.4)

Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, 4)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, pp. 34-40)

The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of human or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, 34-40)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, pp. 27-28)

Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, 27-28)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, p37)

At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, 37)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān====

Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)

Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)

There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Eight immortals====

The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 40-45)

The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang, 1987 40-45)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (呂洞賓), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (張果老), Lan Caihe (藍采和), Li Tieguai (李鐵拐), Zhongli Quan (鍾離權), Han Xiangzi (韓湘子), Cao Guojiu (曹國舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50)

The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (吕洞宾), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (张果老), Lan Caihe (蓝采和), Li Tieguai (李铁拐), Zhongli Quan (钟离权), Han Xiangzi (韩湘子), Cao
Guojiu (曹国舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙過海，各顯神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)

The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙过海，各显神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

immortals 仙

mythology 神话，神话学

cosmology 宇宙论，宇宙观

monolithic 整体（式）的

the Battle of Zhuolu 涿鹿之战

pantheistic 泛神论的

polytheistic 多神论的

Three Pure Ones 三清

anthropomorphic 人格化的

tutelary 守护神

deity 神

Buddha 佛

Shakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Amitabha 阿弥陀佛

Amitāyus 无量寿佛

celestial 天的

Bodhisattva 菩萨

Pure Land 极乐世界

vessels 法器

Covert Eight Immortals 暗八仙

Taoist 道家的，道士

===Questions===

1. What are the topics of the Ancient mythology?

2. What are the differences among shén, dì and xiān?

3. What do the Eight immortals represent respectively?

===Answers===
1.The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths，which can be divided into four categories--the creation myths, myths of heroes, myths about Tribal war, and myths about human and nature.

2. shén and dì corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". The latter term 仙 xiān , refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".

3.Lü Dongbin, He Xiangu, Zhang Guolao, Lan Caihe, Li Tieguai, Zhongli Quan, Han Xiangzi and Cao Guojiu are representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble respectively.

===References===

[1]Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng (2014). Marxism and Religion. Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.

[2]Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

[3]Bai Yang. Chinese Huamn History. Time Literature & Art Press, 1987.

[4]Olson, Stuart Alve (2002). Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun. Bear & Company.

[5]Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism

[6]Hu Yanan. From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty [D].Harbin Normal University,2020.

[7]Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality. Sussex Academic Press.

[8]Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press,1987.

[9]Little, Stephen (2000). Taoism and the Arts of China. The Art Institute of Chicago.

[1]Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng. (2014). ''Marxism and Religion.'' Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.

[2]Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). ''Handbook of Chinese Mythology''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

[3]Bai Yang. (1987). ''Chinese Huamn History''. Time Literature & Art Press.

[4]Olson, Stuart Alve. (2002). ''Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun''. Bear & Company.

[5]Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism

[6]Hu Yanan.(2020). ''From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty'' [D].Harbin Normal University.

[7]Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). ''An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality''. Sussex Academic Press.

[8]Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. (1987). ''A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals''. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press.

[9]Little, Stephen (2000). ''Taoism and the Arts of China.'' The Art Institute of Chicago.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588 MTI==
[suggestion:Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588, here, your major is missing.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Classical Prose Movement of late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty===

====Introduction====

“The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty in China, also known as the Classical Prose Movement, is a movement with the style reform as its surface and Confucianism Renaissance as its depth.” (Li Shufang 2003, 1-3) The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty. This movement took clarity and precision as priorities, and it stood against the florid pianwen or parallel prose style that had been popular starting from the Han Dynasty. Parallel prose had a rigid structure and was criticized for being overly ornate at the expense of content. Therefore, Han Yu, together with Liu Zongyuan, launched this movement to make a difference so that they can revive Confucianism and promote their political thoughts. This movement had a tendency to follow the spirit of pre-Qin prose rather than to imitate it directly. People used elements of colloquial language to make their writings more direct. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 1)
[suggestion:……and Confucianism Renaissance as its deep. Here, "deep" may be replaced by "depth".
The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, (Here, you can add a word "and")it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Development====

The Classical Prose Movement went through three stages. The first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan who were not only writers but also theorists, forming the basis of the movement. Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement and were keen to teach young people so that the movement could achieve further development and then revive the Confucianism. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-18)
[suggestion:(Here, "Both" can be replaced by "They both".)Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. Furthermore, the government only allowed people to use pianwen for official use, so those who want to be officials had to learn that style. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 59-61)
[suggestion:However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. (Here, this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may change the word "writing" into "wrote".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

After that, Ouyang Xiu once again advocated the classical prose in the Song Dynasty. As many people were dissatisfied with the florid piantiwen style, the Classical Prose Movement reached another peak during that period. This movement is consequently also called the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty. (Song Juan 2005, 62-65)

====Representatives====

'''1.Han Yu'''

Han Yu (768–824), courtesy name Tuizhi, is also known for his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. He was born in present-day Mengzhou, Henan, he was a Chinese prose writer, poet, and philosopher who influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism. Due to his influence on the Chinese literary tradition, he is described as “Comparable in stature to Dante, Shakespeare or Goethe”. Meanwhile, he is often considered to be among China’s finest prose writers. Ming Dynasty scholar Mao Kun ranked him first in the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song"，and Su Shi, another Chinese poet, once praised that “His prose reversed the literary decline of eight dynasties”. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-17)
[suggestion:Han Yu (768 – Here, you may delete the space.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC) 824), courtesy name Tuizhi, also known his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. (And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Han Yu wrote a large volume of works, which includes over 700 poems and nearly 400 proses. He is especially famous for his ''On Teachers'', which says “A teacher is one who passes on the truth, imparts knowledge and solves puzzles”. This persuasive prose is short but well structured, and it has a strong appeal to people, which also has a positive impact on youth education. (Fan Aiju, Li Wei 2014, 124-125)

'''2.Liu Zongyuan'''

Liu Zongyuan (773–819), courtesy name Zihou, is also known by his art names He Dong Xian Sheng or Liu He Dong, was a Chinese litterateur, philosopher, politician and poet who lived during the Tang Dynasty. And Liu was born in present-day Yongji, Shanxi. Along with Han Yu, they were called Han Liu. Besides that, he has been regarded as one of the “Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song”, which also includes Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu. Liu's best-known travel pieces are the ''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou''. And one of his most famous poems is "Jiangxue". (Yang Shengli 2020, 42-44)
[suggestion:(773 – Here, you may delete the space. 819);(And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.Ouyang Xiu'''

Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), courtesy name Yong Shu, is also known by his art names Zuiweng and Liu Yi Jushi. He was a Chinese essayist, historian, poet, calligrapher and even a politician of the Song Dynasty. Being a much-celebrated writer, both among his contemporaries and in subsequent centuries. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56)
[suggestion:(1007 – Here, you may delete the space. 1072);(And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Xiu was in charge of the writing of the ''New Book of Tang'', and he also wrote the ''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' independently, the only book in the Twenty-Four Histories to have been written in private by a single author. As a poet, he was a noted writer of both the shi and ci genres. But it was his prose writings like ''Zuiweng Tingji'' that won him the greatest acclaim. The poem's most well-known line is: The Old Toper cares not for the wine, his interest lies in the landscape, an idiom still used in modern Chinese to describe someone with an ulterior motive. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56-57)

Except for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu, there were many other representatives of this movement. For example, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zeng Gong and Wang Anshi also made great contributions to the Classical Prose Movement. Considering their influences, they were also listed as Eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 82-83)
[suggestion:Except(Here, you may change "Except" into "Besides".) for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu,……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Masterworks====

Under the influence of the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty, there appeared a large volume of masterpieces, which have a far-reaching influence on later ages. Except for the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu, other works like ''Shang Zhongyong'' written by Wang Anshi, ''On Jia Yi'' and ''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' by Su Shi, were also considered the representative works of this movement. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 73-78)
[suggestion:Except for(Here, you may change "Except for" into "Besides".) the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu,……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Influence====

The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty is a milestone during the development of Chinese ancient prose, it has a profound influence on the later schools of literature like Tang-Song School in the Ming Dynasty and Tong Cheng school in the Qing Dynasty. Besides that, it also helped to lay a solid foundation of prose in China, and acted as a fine example for later scholars. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 85-86)

====Terms and Expressions====

The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty 唐宋八大家

Classical Prose Movement 古文运动

''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou'' 《永州八记》

''On Teachers'' 《师说》

''New Book of Tang'' 《新唐书》

''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' 《新五代史》

''Zuiweng Tingji'' 《醉翁亭记》

''Shang Zhongyong'' 《伤仲永》

''On Jia Yi'' 《贾谊论》

''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' 《赤壁赋》

====Questions====

1. Who were the first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement?

2. What does the Classical Prose Movement mean?

3. What's political and religious purposes of the Classical Prose Movement?

====Answers====

1. The first promoters of this movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.

2. The Classical Prose Movement refers to the cultural reform movement which promotes Gu Wen and opposes pianwen in late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty.

3. The reason why Confucious scholars promoted this movement is that they wanted to combat the influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the emperors. Besides that, this movement is also an effective tool to expose the reality of corruption and weakness in the central government.
[suggestion: The reason what…….(Here, you may change "what" into "why".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

Fan Aiju, Li Wei 范爱菊, 李伟. (2014). 唐代文豪韩愈的文学造诣 [The literary achievements of Han Yu in the Tang Dynasty] 兰台世界 ''Lantai World'' (21) 124-125.

Li Shufang. (2003). 古文运动的社会背景 [The Social Background of Sport of Ancient Chinese Prose]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学 (12) 1-3.

Nie Yongqing 聂永清. (2007). 重读欧阳修 [Rethinking of Ouyang Xiu] 当代江西 ''Dang Dai Jiangxi'' (02) 56-57.

Qian Dongfu 钱东父. (1979). 唐宋古文运动 [''The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty''] Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Song Juan 宋娟. (2005). 古文运动、科举与“唐宋八大家” [Movement of the Ancient Chinese Prose, Imperial Examination and “Eight Great Writers in Tang and Song Dynasty”]. Mudanjiang: Mudanjiang Normal University 牡丹江师范学院 (02) 62-65.

Yang Shengli 杨胜利. (2020). “河东先生”柳宗元 [Liu Zongyuan:He Dong Xian Sheng]. 支部建设 Zhi Bu Jian She (08) 42-44.

Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (1996). 唐宋八大家论 [Talking of Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song]. Shanghai: Zhong Hua Book Company 中华书局 (06) 35-38.

==The tradition of Red Envelope and Lucky Money - HA, THI THU HANG - 201921080008 - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets-design.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Red Enverlop]]

===The Chinese Red Envelope and Lucky Money Tradition===

In Chinese and other East and Southeast Asian societies, Red Envelopes, also called Red Packets, Lucky Money, or ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ) in Chinese, ''Li shi'' / ''Lìxì'' in Vietnamese are popular monetary gift given during holidays or special occasions or festivals such as weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc in China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and some other Asian countries, especially widely seen during the Lunar New Year Festival. During the Lunar New Year, the adult, parents and grandparents gift with the red envelops for kids, which have money stuffed into. It is a traditional way to wish good luck and share blessings.

The Lucky Money tradition began in the Han Dynasty. Rather than real money, they were small collectibles in the form of coins to ward off evil spirits. Auspicious phrases and symbols were engraved onto the surface. "worldwide peace" ( 天下太平 / ''Tiān xià tài píng''), “longevity and fortune” ( 千秋万岁 / ''Qiān qiū wàn suì''), dragons and phoenixes were common.

These coins were tied together with red string. The practice transitioned to be wrapped in Red Paper and now, put into Red Envelopes.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Legend====

In China, during the Qin Dynasty, the elderly would thread coins with a red string. There was a kind of little demon called ''Sui'' ( 祟 ) in ancient times. Whenever it is on New Year's Eve, it will appear quietly, touching the head of a sleeping child. The child who was being touched will be scared and cry, and also will have a headache. Therefore, in order to prevent against the sui, people in the past did not dare to sleep on New Year's Eve, and all the lights were called ''Shou Sui'' ( 守祟 ).

One tale of the folklore, once upon a time, there was a couple who were over 50 years old had just given birth to a little boy. In that Lunar New Year, 8 fairies visited their house and knew that there would be a monster coming to hurt him. To protect the baby, the 8 faires transformed into 8 coins which were then wrapped in red cloth and laid beside the boy when he was sleeping. Thanks to these coins, which were the fairies, the boy was unharmed by the monster. The old couple was so thankful and gradually everyone in the village knew about the stories. Since then, when Lunar New Year comes, people will give children "red paper wrapped copper money" with a belief that the money will protect children from being harmed.

There are also other legends about this custom related to the son of Yang Guifei of the Tang Dynasty - China and the Qin Dynasty. But in general, the New Year's blessing of the lucky money all originates with the meaning of giving happy money to children, wishing them to grow up their money so they can pass the new age with good things and luck.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Tradition====

The Chinese custom of Lucky Money is called ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ). Chinese people really like red, so the Lucky Money is always red, symbolizing luck and happiness. The Red Envelope is called ''Yāsuìqián'' ( 压岁钱 ), which means "suppressing ghosts money". Those who receive a Red Envelope are wished another safe and pea. Sending Red Envelopes is a way to send good wishes another safe and peaceful year, and luck (as well as money). The amount of money in the Chinese Lucky Money must avoid the number 4 ( 四 / ''si'') and be sealed - that means no 4, 40, or 400 amounts - as the pronunciation of four in Chinese sounds like the word for death ( 死/ ''si''). However, amounts including the number 8 ( 八 / ''ba'') will bring good luck and prosperity ( 发财 / ''fa'').

There are rules on how to properly receive an Envelope. Traditionally, children would kneel to receive their ''Hóngbāo'' from older family members, and this is still practiced in some areas of China. Red Envelopes are also always given and received with both hands, and should never be opened immediately and in the presence of the present-giver. After receiving the Lucky Money, the children have to put it all under the pillow after about a week to open it. The meaning of this is for the Lucky Money to protect the kids from the bad things that can happen in the new year. This is also the source of the traditional Chinese Lucky Money.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Alipay and WeChat Red Envelope'''

[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets.jpg|200px|thumb|Right|Red Envelope - How much to give who - [[https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]]]]

Moving on from the traditional Red Envelope, in the 21st century, many people exchange digital Red Envelopes instead of the traditional paper ones. These are virtual packets of very real cash, transferred directly to friends' and family's smartphones. Users can even send digital ''Hóngbāo'' to their favorite celebrities using apps such as Alipay, WeChat and the Weibo Red Envelope. WeChat Red Packet is an online money transfer with a colorful message via WeChat (a messaging Chinese app). In recent years, it has become popular among young people to send "Red Envelopes" via WeChat as a greeting. It has become a new way to greet friends or relatives during the Chinese New Year period.

While the tradition centers on children, Red Envelopes are given to friends, family, colleagues and many other relatives - and different amounts of money are customary for each relation. For example, parents and grandparents get the most, but employees and even casual acquaintances can expect a Red Envelope.

====Outside of China====

The similar customs have been adopted throughout Southeast Asia and many other countries with sizable populations of Chinese descent. Each country has different ways of Lucky Money and changes over time, but the basic custom of Lucky Money is to want to send wishes of peace to all relatives and friends in the New Year.

In Vietnam, Lucky Money is called ''Lì xì/Tiền mừng tuổi'' and very typical. On the first day of the Lunar New Year - one of the great holidays of the year, both adults and babies wear new clothes to celebrate the New Year relative. After that, the adults will give Lucky Money to the children with the message of good luck, good care and good study. Today, the tradition of Lucky Money in Vietnam is also expanded in the direction that children give Lucky Money to celebrate the age of grandparents and parents. This is a human custom that is increasingly promoted by the Vietnamese people.

In Japan, Lucky Money is called ''Otoshidama''. Unlike other countries, the amount of Japanese Lucky Money depends on the child's age, the relationship of the family. ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes are usually white in color, not as common in red as other countries. The special thing about the Japanese Red Envelopes is that the envelopes are always sealed, symbolizing the privacy, not packaging. Moreover, the name of the person receiving the Lucky Money will be written on the Red Envelope to show respect for the recipient. The message of each ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes is a wish for a warm, peaceful and lucky New Year.

In Korea, Lucky Money is called ''Sabae''. On the New Year's day, children in traditionally dressed families perform the ritual of bowing to their seniors to show gratitude for birth and nurturing. After this ceremony, the children will receive Lucky Money together with wishes for health and peace in the New Year. The Lucky Money in Korea is more diverse than other countries, not only with money but also gold, pearls, gems, etc.

The Lucky Money tradition has also crossed cultural and religious boundaries, and ''Green Envelope-giving'' has even become a practice during the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Fitr across Southeast Asia. It is also widely practiced by the Chinese and Southeast Asian diaspora across the world.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Lucky Money 利市/ Lì shì

Red Envelope 红包/ Hóngbāo

Worldwide Peace 天下太平/ Tiān xià tài píng

Longevity and Fortune 千秋万岁/ Qiān qiū wàn suì

Suppressing Ghosts Money/ Suppressing Sui Money 压岁钱/ Yā suì qián

Sui 祟

Shou Sui 守祟

===Questions===

1. Do you know the origin of giving Lunar New Year's Lucky Money to children?

2. Is the Lucky Money tradition exist in other countries than China?

3. What are the rules on giving-receiving Red Envelopes?

4. On what occasions people giving-receiving Red Envelopes?

5. Do you ever receive a Red Envelope? On what occasion?

===Answers===

1. It began in the Han Dynasty and to protect children from being harmed.

2. Yes. It is very polupar in Vietnam (''Lìxì''), Japan (''Otoshidama''), Korea (''Sabae''), and some other Southeast Asian countries.

3. The giving amount of money must avoid the number 4 that sounds like the word of death in Chinese. The children, after receiving the Red Envelope, do not open it immediatedly and in the presence of the present-giver, but have to put it under the pillow after about a week to open it.

4. Red Envelopes are most commonly associated with New Year, but they also turn up as part of many other occasions as a way of sharing good luck and blessings, like births, weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc.

5. Yes. Red Envelope, or Lucky Money, or ''Lìxì'' is very typical in the Lunar New Year in my country Vietnam.

===References===

Red Envelope[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_envelope]

Fefe Ho - Red Pockets[https://chinesenewyear.net/red-pockets/]

Cindy Tang - Red Envelopes/Packets (Hongbao) - Amount, Symbols and How to Give [https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]

Chinese Red Envelope [https://www.travelchinaguide.com/essential/holidays/new-year/red-envelope.htm]--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Calendar, The 24 Solar Terms - He Changqi 何长琦 student No. and 专业 are missing --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)==

==='''The Twenty-four Solar Terms'''===
==='''The Twenty-four Solar Terms'''===[maybe this should be deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===1. The orgin and development of the twenty-four solar terms===
===1. The Orgin and Development of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

“The twenty-four solar terms” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）

"The 24 solar terms" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）[suggestion:the quotation mark in English and in Chinese should be distinguished.In Chinese, it is “”;in English, it is ""]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: winter solstice, summer solstice, spring equinox and autumn equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature, during the Warring States period, the complete twenty-four solar terms were basically formed, and during the Qin and Han dynasties, the complete twenty-four solar terms system was perfected and formed into today's complete twenty-four solar terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）

By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: winter solstice, summer solstice, spring equinox and autumn equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature in the Warring States period, the complete 24 solar terms were basically formed. During the Qin and Han dynasties, a complete system was perfected and formed into today's complete twenty-four solar terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）[suggestion:the last sentence is too long to read.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:42, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The definition and classification of the 24 solar terms===
===2. The Definition and Classification of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

“The twenty-four solar term” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)

"The 24 solar term" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[suggestion:it will be better if you use Arabic numerals or its English version uniformly in the whole passage; please pay attention to the difference of quotation mark in Chinese and English.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the meddle part of a month is called qi (气). ( Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it. ) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)

A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the middle part of a month is called qi (气). (Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it.) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[maybe there is a wrong word "meddle", it should be "middle" .]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the four solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)

The 8 solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the 4 solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[suggestion:it will be better if a uniform numeral format is used.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Folklore of the 24 solar terms===
===3.Folklore of the 24 Solar Terms===[the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three areas: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.((Ding Yiming. Chang He 2020)) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the twenty-four solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc.

The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three aspects: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the 24 solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc. [suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of Start of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of Start of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of Start of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan. Zou Yating 2020)

These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of the Begining of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of the Begining of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of the Begining of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan, Zou Yating 2020)[suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.Importance and values of of the 24 solar terms===
===4.Importance and Values of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:it will be better if the first letters are capitalized; the "of" should be deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.1 Importance in ancient times===
====4.1 Importance in Ancient Times====[the subtitle should add a mark as "="]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people.

The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people.[suggestion:quotation is missing.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is also the most basic function and value of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humans according to natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)

Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is the most basic function of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humanity in accordance with natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of the people in ancient times. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were not just a time system, but a much more colourful connotation of life, and an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of ancient people. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were more than a time system, they were also a connotation of life, an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立), that is, the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter , have always been important festivals in history. At the time of these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival, which is also known as China's four traditional festivals, along with Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立)-- the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter-- have always been important festivals in history. At these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival. Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and Tomb Sweeping Festival are known as China's four traditional festivals .(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 Values in modern society===
====4.2 Values in Modern Society====[suggestion:it will be better if the first letters are capitalized; the subtitle should add a mark as "="]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation.(Ding Yiming. Chang He 2020)

In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020)[suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It still has its practical values in modern society.Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system with a long history and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations, such as respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

It still has its practical values in modern society.Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations. Specifically, respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, showing filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and reflect the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019) [suggestion:maybe it will be better if "reflect" is deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Lastly, the 24 solar terms are not only a time system, but also a living tradition full of rich connotations, which is an important part of people's lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

===Terms and Expressions===

the Beginning of Spring 立春

Beginning of Autumn 立秋

Rain Water 雨水

End of Heat 处暑

Insects Awakening 惊蛰

White Dew 白露

Spring Equinox 春分

Autumnal Equinox 秋分

Fresh Green 清明

Cold Dew 寒露

Grain Rain 谷雨

First Frost 霜降

Beginning of Summer 立夏

Beginning of Winter 立冬

Lesser Fullness 小满

Light Snow 小雪

Grain in Ear 芒种

Heavy Snow 大雪

Summer Solstice 夏至

Winter Solstice 冬至

Lesser Heat 大暑

Lesser Cold 小寒

Greater Heat 立春

Greater Cold 大寒

===Questions===

1.1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?
1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Where does the 24 solar terms originate from?

3. What are the eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes？

4.When was the 24 solar terms included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List?

5.What are the food customs in the Beginning of Spring?

6.Do you konw any other folklore of the 24 solar terms?

===Answers===

1.Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox.

2.It originated in the Yellow River valley.

3.Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox, Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice

4.In 2016.

5.People eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots.

6.It is said that people should eat dumplings on the Start of Winter. There is a story about the birth of dumplings. According to legend, in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, the "Sage of Medicine", invented the "jiaozi" to treat frostbite patients with frostbitten ears. He cooked mutton, hot peppers and herbs to dispel the cold and warm up the body. He wrapped these ingredients into a dough skin and made them into an ear shape. Since then, people have learned to make the food which became known as "dumpling" or jiaozi. Today there is still a saying that goes "Eat dumplings on Start of Winter Day, or your ears will be frostbitten."

===References===

Yuan Jix. 袁济喜. (2016). "中华思想文化术语(3)”[Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture]. 外语教学与研究出版社”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Belarusian Literature and Arts Press] (Yuan Jix 2016:)

Wang Jiahua. 王加华.（2019.9.20）"China Social Science Network" http://www.cssn.cn/zx/bwyc/201909/t20190920_4974497_1.shtml

Ding Yiming. Chang He. 丁一鸣. 常河（2020.11.17）"Chinanews" http://www.chinanews.com/cul/2020/11-17/9340057.shtml

He Yannan. Zou Yating. 贺亚楠. 邹雅婷. (2020.2.4) “China Daily” https://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/04/WS5e3901a9a3107bb6b579d18d.html

==Literature, Yue Fu - Hu Baihui 胡百辉 202070080590 English Translation==

===Collection of Yue Fu Poetry《乐府诗集》===

====Introduction====

'''1.Brief introduction'''

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name.(Wu Ting 2007, 20)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre-Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name. (Wu Ting 2007, 20)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.About the author'''

Guo Maoqian (1041-1099) was born in Xucheng, Yunzhou, Song Dynasty. He is the grandson of Guo Quan, and the son of Guo Yuanming. Song Shenzong Yuanfeng seven years (1084), Cao joined the army in Henan Province. He wrote a hundred volumes of ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'', which was handed down from generation to generation. (Wu Ting 2007, 22)

'''3.Content introduction'''

It divides Yuefu Poems into 12 categories, including suburban Temple songs, Yan shooting songs, drum songs, horizontal blowing songs, Xianghe songs, etc. In these different kinds of music, the songs of Jiaomiao and yanshe belong to the movements used by the imperial court, and their ideological content and artistic skills are less desirable. There are also some works with poor artistic value. But generally speaking, most of the poems it collects are excellent folk songs and poems written by scholars with old Yuefu titles. In the existing poetry collection, "Yuefu Poetry Collection" is an important book with the most complete collection of all kinds of Yuefu Poetry in the past dynasties. (Wu Ting 2007, 30)

====Masterpieces====

'''1.''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'''''

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife, but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for love freedom and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for free love and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.''Mulan Poetry'''''

''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man, joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality, It has strong artistic appeal.(Wu Ting 2007, 41)

''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man and joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for a reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality. Therefore, it has strong artistic appeal. (Wu Ting 2007, 41)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Evaluation====

'''1.Contributions'''

The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)

The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of the Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105) --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literature history and music history.There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but narrative is attached to lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in the singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literary history and music history. There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but the narrative is attached to the lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.Shortcomings'''

There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' . For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as an ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)

There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''. For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Wu Ting 吴婷.(2007).乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究[D][A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].南昌:南昌大学 Nanchang:Nanchang University (12)20-41.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:06, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

Yu Yizhi 喻意志.(2002).乐府诗集成书研究[D][A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].上海:上海师范大学 Shanghai:Shanghai Normal University (10)105-107.

Wu Ting 吴婷. (2007). 乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究 [A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].Nanchang:Nanchang University 南昌大学 (12) 20-41.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Yu Yizhi 喻意志. (2002). 乐府诗集成书研究 [A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poetry'']. Shanghai: Shanghai Normal University 上海师范大学 (10)105-107.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''《乐府诗集》

Jiaomiao songs郊庙歌辞

Yanshe songs燕射歌辞

Guchui drum songs鼓吹曲辞

Hengchui songs横吹曲辞

Xianghe songs相和歌辞

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' 《孔雀东南飞》

''Mulan Poetry''《木兰辞》--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:24, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.When was Yuefu Poetry compiled？

2.Which institution did "Yuefu" belong to?

3.What are ''The Peacock Flies to Southeast''based on?--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:34, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.In Song Dynasty.

2.It belongs to the institution in charge of music.

3.It is based on a marriage tragedy.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:38, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisines, Eight Major Cuisines in China - Hu Jin 胡瑾 202070080591 英语笔译==

===Eight Major Cuisines of China===

====1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisine====
1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisines--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As early as the Shang and Zhou dynasties, China's food culture began to take shape. At that time, Tai Gongwang was the most representative. In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period under the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, the flavors of North and South dishes showed differences. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the southern cuisine and the northern cuisine formed their own systems. In the Southern Song Dynasty, sweet in south and salty in north was formed. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Shandong Cuisine, Sichuan Cuisine, Cantonese Cuisine, and Su Cuisine became the most influential local dishes at that time, and they were called the "four major cuisines." By the end of the Qing Dynasty, four new local cuisines, Zhejiang Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine, Hunan Cuisine, and Anhui Cuisine, were differentiated and formed, which together constituted the "eight major cuisines" of traditional Chinese cuisine. (Lv Xiaomin 2009, 64)

====2. The Classification of Chinese Cuisines====

China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavor. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted around. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)

China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavors. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1 Shandong Cuisine=====
Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)

Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Besides, Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2 Sichuan Cuisine=====
Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one
of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)

Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical and exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3 Guangdong Cuisine=====
Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables. Many vegetables originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)

Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables, which originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, just bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.4 Fujian Cuisine=====
Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct features are their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)

Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct feature is their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5 Jiangsu Cuisine=====
Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh and sweet and with delicate elegance. Jiangsu Cuisine is well known for its careful selection of ingredients, its meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)

Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh, sweet and delicate. Jiangsu Cuisine is well-known for its careful selection of ingredients, its methodology of meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.6 Zhejiang Cuisine=====
Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)

Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. And Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.7 Hunan Cuisine=====
Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessaries in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)

Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessities in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.8 Anhui Cuisine=====
Anhui Cuisine focuses much more attention on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking method are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)

Anhui Cuisine focuses much more on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking methods are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3. A Comparison of Chinese-Western Diet Culture====

Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. There are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)

Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. So there are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China, but it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)

Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China. But it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)

However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to both their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are also differences in names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)

There are also differences in the names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo Meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

Bi Jiwan 毕继万. (1999). 跨文化非语言交际 [Cross-cultural Nonverbal Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 78-83.

Cai Hua 蔡华. (2009). 试论中西饮食文化的差异 [On the Differences between Chinese and Western Food Culture]. ''邵阳学院学报'' Journal of Shaoyang University 56-67.

Du Xuezeng 杜学增. (1999). 中英文化习俗比较 [Comparison of Chinese and English Cultural Customs]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 212-217.

Lv Xiaomi, Ding Xiao, Dai Yangyong 吕晓敏, 丁骁, 代养勇. (2008). 中国八大菜系的形成历程和背景 [The Formation Process and Background of Eight Major Cuisines in China ]. ''中国食物与营养'' Food and Nutrition in China (10) 62－64．

Shi Hongmei 史红梅. (2009). 地理教学中我国地域饮食文化差异研究 [Study on the Differences of Regional Diet Culture in Geography Teaching in China]. ''河北师范大学'' Hebei Normal University 34-68.

===Terms and Expressions===

pot-stewed fowl 卤味

stewing and simmering 炖，煨

prickly ash 花椒

fermented soybean 豆鼓

Braised Dongpo Pork 东坡肉

Buddha Jumps over the Wall 佛跳墙

Kung Pao Chicken 宫保鸡丁

Bean Sauce Tofu 麻婆豆腐

===Questions===
1. How many types of cuisines are there in china?

2. What’s differences between Chinese and western diets?

3. What is the origin of Dongpo Meat?

===Answers===
1. Eight

2. 1. The western cooking method is simpler than that in China. 2. Western diet pays attention to the nutrition while Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. 3. Western diet is a more rational diet. 4. Westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. 5. Westerners specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. 6. There are also differences in names of dishes.

3. It is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty.

== Paper Cutting - Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪 202070080636 2020英语口译 Interpreting ==

Chinese Paper Cutting 剪纸

===Introduction===

With a long history, papercutting could be dated back to 2000 years ago in China according to the archaeological records. It originated in ancient ancestor worship activities which people pray for their ancestor'''(s)''' and god. Later, with the widespread papercutting technique'''(s)''' and people’s growing love for it, it gradually served as the decorations for the doors, walls, mirrors, lanterns and so on. Nowadays, papercutting has already become an integral part of Chinese traditional culture and serves as a window of the Chinese folk culture. (Jiao 2016: 3)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===History===

The skill of cutting and carving appeared way before the invention of paper, and a number of materials, from the bark, leaves and animal skin, to later silk fabrics, as well as cloth, silk, etc., were cut into certain shapes to decorate, which lay '''(change to laid)''' a solid foundation for the art of papercutting. (Li & Zhang 2015: 7)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As the paper is not easy to preserve, few of the paper works could survive to the modern times. “The earliest such work surviving are five examples dating from the Northern Dynasties period (386-581), unearthed in Turfan（吐鲁番）, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.” (Folk Handicrafts)

In the'''(what)''' dynasty the custom of papercutting began to be popular, and the handicraft man cut paper to different shapes, and each owns its name. Namely, the shape of square was named “Fangsheng”, the flower shape was called “Huasheng”, the people('''add - )''' shaped “rensheng”. Two pieces of “Huasheng”, which were the remains in the Tang Dynasty, are preserved now in Shōsō-in(正仓院) in Japan. (Li & Zhang 2015: 7-8)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

By the Song Dynasty, with the prosperous development of economy and culture, in addition to daily decoration, papercutting was used for crafts such as porcelain and blue calico. (蓝印花布) (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

The art of papercutting became mature in Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. There emerged well designed papercutting works in the Yuan dynasty, and collectors began to collect paper-cutting works as artwork. By the Ming Dynasty, the application of paper-cutting became even wider, with clip gauze lantern (夹纱灯) as an representative. It is a lantern with papercutting clipped in, candlelight reflecting the pattern. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

Since its birth, the art of papercutting has never been interrupted.In its long history, it evolved in art and pottery, printing, dyeing and other art intertwined, being an indispensable part of people’s life. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

===Five Regions===

The distribution area of Chinese folk paper-cutting, according to the historical changes, geography, ecological environment changes, cultural development differences and paper-cutting itself in the aesthetic '''(s)''', style of mutual influence and so on, for a comprehensive consideration, can be divided into five regions. (Wang 2006:106)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Northeast Changbai Mountains area: It mainly covers Changbai Mountain area in Heilongjiang province, Liaoning province. As the birthplace of the nation of Man, the papercutting here herited the culture and customs of Man. (Wang 2006:106)

Yellow river basin area: With the north of Shaanxi '''(maybe Shanxi)''' papercutting as the center, it is simple but more expressive because of its rough lines and designs. (Wang 2006:106)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Yangtze River basin area: It covers papercutting in Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan and Jiangsu provinces. Influenced by folk farming culture and the Confucian culture in the Han dynasty, papercutting in this region is in the rough in shape but bears a sense of delicacy. (Wang 2006:106)

The southeastern coastal area: It is highlighted by the papercutting of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. This region, more affluent. Paper-cutting creation, especially in Zhejiang Jinhua, Guangdong Foshan as the representative, in the history of cultural development, the vein is also more distinct, its aesthetic interest, tends to be elegant and common appreciation(appreciation maybe change to appreciated). (Wang 2006:106)

Southwestern minority areas: It is characterized by papercutting in the minorities in Yunan and Guizhou province'''(s)'''. Many paper cuttings are combined with embroidery patterns. The religious beliefs of this region obviously involved in the art of papercutting. (Wang 2006:107)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Techniques===

There are various ways to make papercutting works, include folding paper-cutting, smoked paper-cutting(熏样剪纸), color-collage paper-cutting, paper-cutting and tongcun paper-cutting , but the most common ones are mono-colored and dot-colored. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

Mono-colored papercutting refer'''(s)''' to '''(加papercutting)''' cut or curve with a single-colored paper, mostly in red. Since ancient times, the Chinese revered the red, whenever there are grand celebration ceremonies or festivals, red is the main color, featuring warmth, passion and also brightness and happiness. However, mono-colored papercutting is also available in black or other colors, which are used according to different circumstances and situations, among which white papercutting is mostly used as the base sample for embroidery. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Dyed papercutting also called dotted paper cuttings. The paper is mostly Xuan paper, a kind of thin white paper absorbs water easily. Twenty or thirty pieces of such paper are put into pile and the pattern is carved out with a knife. Then the mass of paper is dyed.After the dying process, the colors become rich and elegant, with endless changes and a strong local flavor. The dyed papercutting is mainly found in Hebei, Shanxi and Guangdong province, among which the dotted paper cuttings in Weixian, Hebei is very unique. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)
===Themes===

Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, birds and animals,'''(animals and birds和前面的birds and animals 重复了)''' twelve zodiac animals, '''(pavilions and pavilions这儿也重复啦)''' , totem worship(图腾崇拜), religious belief. Its connection with the major festivals and traditional customs find its expression in every aspects of life.Papercutting is an essential folk activity in the villages. Traditionally, on the 23rd day of the twelfth lunar month, women "drop their hoes and pick up scissors to cut papers"; on the 28th, flowers are pasted on the windows. On this day, every family paste window decorations, new year’s pictures and Spring Festival couplets (春联) to create an lively environment for the new year. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is the rural working women who are the majority of creator'''s''' of the delicate papercutting. When they were five or six years old or seven or eight years old, they began to follow their mothers and grandmothers to learn paper-cutting. Mothers would pass on their treasured paper-cutting patterns to their daughters and daughters-in-law as family heirlooms. This is how China’s folk papercutting has been passed down from generation to generation. They are devoutly devoted to the papercutting that are rich in connotations such as prosperity, peace and good fortune, happiness, '''prosperity here重复啦''' health and longevity. It is the inheritance of this spirit that has enabled the art of paper-cutting to last for thousands of years. (Li & Zhang 2015: 9)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Wang Minbo 王敏伯. (2006) 中国民间剪纸史[The History of Chinese Folk Paper-cut Arts] 杭州: 中国美术学院出版社 Hangzhou: China Academy of Art Press.

Li Youyou & Zhang JIngjuan 李有有&张静娟. (2015) 剪纸 [paper-cut] 北京中国旅游出版社 Beijing: China Travel & Tourism Press.

Lu Zhongmin. (2002) Folk Handicrafts. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

===Terms and Expressions===

Dyed papercutting 点染剪纸

Mono-colored papercutting 单色剪纸

Shōsō-in 正仓院

smoked paper-cutting熏样剪纸

Spring Festival couplets 春联

totem worship图腾崇拜

Turfan吐鲁番

===Questions===

1. Where was the earliest papercutting found in China?

2. How many regions the distribution of Papercutting can be divided into?

3. Which two types of papercutting are the most common ones?

4. What could be the themes of the papercutting?

===Answers===

1. They were unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

2. Mono-colored papercutting and dyed papercutting.'''(答案和第三题的反了）'''

3. Northeast Changbai Mountains area, Yellow river basin area, Yangtze River basin area, The southeastern coastal area and Southwestern minority areas.'''（同上)'''

4. Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, birds and animals, animals and birds, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions and pavilions, totem worship, religious belief.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing - Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮 202070080592 英语笔译==

===The Chinese Medical Sage - Zhang Zhongjing===

Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who is respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)

Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who was respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)

Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw through the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)

This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)

Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)

When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (首都医药 2003, 40)

There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in the Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (首都医药 2003, 40)

When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about those poor people. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (首都医药 2003, 40)

Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about the poor. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the day of the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (首都医药 2003, 40)

Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrap the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (首都医药 2003, 40)

In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrapping the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult man, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)

At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:Zhang_Zhongjing.jpg]]

===References===

(2003). 张仲景故乡的二十四个故事(六) 饺子的来历[J] [Twenty-four Stories of Zhang Zhongjing's Hometown (VI) The Origin of Dumpling]. ''首都医药'' Capital Medicine (17) 40.

Zhang Maoyun 张茂云. (2014). 伤寒杂病论成书年代及仲景生平年代考历[J] [Journal on the Written Time of ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'' and the Lifeyime of Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国中医药现代远程教育'' Chinese Medicine Modern Distance Education of China (04) 19-20.

Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 甄雪燕，王利敏，梁永宣. (2013). “医圣”张仲景[J] ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国卫生人才'' China Health Human Resources (07) 88-89.

Zhang Deli 张德礼. (2019). 心系百姓的“医圣”张仲景[J] [People's Medical Sage Zhang Zhongjing]. ''现代班组'' Morden Group (05) 37.

Tan Rongzhou 覃荣周. (2013). 张仲景对我国医学发展的历史贡献[J] [Zhang Zhongjing's Historical Contribution to the Development of Chinese Medicine]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (07) 55-56.

Zhao Qingxin 赵清新. (1999). 万世医宗张仲景[J] ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''解放军健康'' PLA Health (05) 36.

Tian Yi 天一. (2020). 张仲景:“医圣”之名传天下[J] [Zhang Zhongjing: the Name of "Medical Sage" Spreads all over the World]. ''月读'' Monthly Read (03) 4-13.

===Terms and Expressions===

medical sage 医圣

''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases''《伤寒杂病论》

treatment based on syndrome differentiation/ diagnosis and treatment based on an overall analysis of the illness and the patient's condition 辩证施治

yamen 衙门

Great Cold ( 24th solar term ) 大寒

Slight Cold ( 23rd solar term ) 小寒

look, listen, question and feel the pulse -- four ways of diagnosis 望闻问切

Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup 祛寒娇耳汤

===Questions===

1. What's the honorable title Zhang Zhongjing addressed as?

2. What's the official role Zhang once taken?

3. When would Zhang treat patients for free at yamen?

4. What's the most well-known and important masterpiece Zhang ever write? What's his motive of writing it?

5. What's the relationship between Zhang Zhongjing and dumplings?

===Answers===

1. Chinese Medical Sage.

2. Changsha magistrate.

3. He treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month.

4. ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases.'' Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases.

5. Dumplings are derived from the recipe " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" developed by Zhang Zhongjing.

--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:53, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

20201215 cultexam 1

2020-12-20T04:59:43Z

Chen Jingjing: /* Facial makeup */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Chinese Astrology - Alsied, Saffana==
"Chinese Astrology"--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED ,Student No:......... Major...........

===The History===

So, what is Chinese astrology anyway? Chinese astrology is an ancient art, which uses the time of birth, including the year, month, day, and time, to reveal insights into a person’s personality traits, lifestyle, health, career direction, and compatibility with others. Although the exact origin of the system is unknown, Chinese astrology has guided the Chinese for over five thousand years and has a profound influence on our lives. The Chinese system of zodiac is actually based on a ten-year Sun-Moon cycle that conforms to the ancient Chinese agricultural calendar. The cycle is divided into the five elements: Water, Wood, Fire, Earth, and Metal as well as the twelve animals, which represent each year. The system is influenced by Yin (female) and Yang (male) cosmic force, which is said to be an interpretation of universal harmony and balance. where the source is coming from ?

===The Five Elements And YIN/YANG===

Chinese believe that the five basic elements, Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water form everything in the Universe. As a fundamental part of the Oriental philosophy, the five elements are divided into Conducive and Controlling interrelationships. A Conducive interrelationship means that these five elements will produce one another and help nourish each other. We get Fire from Wood because fire is produced by burning wood. We get Earth from Fire because fire can burn everything into ashes (earth). We get Metal from Earth because all metal has to be extracted from the earth. We get Water from Metal because metal will change into liquid when heated. And, from Water we get Wood because water nourishes plants, thus producing wood. where is the quotation please?

A Controlling interrelationship means that these five elements can control or be destroyed by another element. Wood controls Earth because trees draw nourishment out of the earth. Earth controls Water because the earth can absorb water and also blocks the flow of water through man-made dykes or naturally occurring phenomena. Water controls Fire because the water is used to put out fires. Fire controls Metal because the heat of a fire can melt metal. And, Metal controls Wood because trees can be chopped down by the metal blade of an ax. Under this philosophy, no element is considered the strongest or weakest. Each element is either controlled by another element or can produce another element. In fact, they are dependent on one another and therefore, are considered equal. In Chinese astrology, during the complete sixty-year cycle, each of the animal signs is combined with the five main elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The element of your zodiac sign will exercise its influence on your life. where is the quotation please?

===THE FORCES OF YIN / YANG===

Since ancient times, the Chinese have believed that two major forces, the Yin and the Yang, control the universe. These two forces are the foundation of Chinese philosophy, people, and even Chinese medicine. Generally speaking, the Yin signifies death whereas the Yang indicates life.

A well-known symbol called “Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) embodies the Yin and the Yang. In the circle, the two forces equilibrate the energy and keep everything balanced. No force is stronger or weaker than the other, when one is at its highest, the other is at its lowest. Together the Yin and the Yang become a whole and thus keep the universe in harmony. where the source is coming please?

Chinese astrology was invented to achieve the two following goals;

1.) To predict the future,

2.) To determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.

According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu, and is still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology to predict one's fortune. Chinese Astrology Signs are based on the year that a person is born, with each of the twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs being represented by a particular animal. The twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs are; Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Lamb, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig. It is felt in Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year. where the source is coming please ?

Today, the Chinese Zodiac constitutes as a significant part of the traditional Chinese culture. At festive events paper-cut and New-Year pictures of the Chinese Zodiac are popular among the Chinese people. In addition, the Chinese Zodiac is also seen as the symbol of China itself, enforcing its vital role within Chinese culture, although the dragon is the most recognized totem of the Chinese nation. quotation please?

The Chinese Zodiac plays a part within people's religious beliefs in China. The 12 animals are divided into two categories of Yin and Yang, which are the underlying principles of Chinese philosophy and medicine by ancient Chinese people in accordance with the Five Elements (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth). A set of fortunetelling methods proclaim that the twelve Chinese horoscope animals decide people's, as a result, the Chinese Zodiac began to play a crucial part in people’s characters, friendships, marriages, careers, health, fortune and other vital parts of their life. Within Chinese astrology, it is considered that when a person comes to their attributed year, which is decided by the year when they were born, they must wear a red belt to pursue good fortune and avoid bad luck. This custom of 'Birth Year' is widespread throughout China.quotation please?

You might also be surprised to hear that according to some astrologers, your Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.

===Terms and Expressions===

1. Chinese Astrology 中国占星学

2. Chinese Zodiac 中国十二生肖

3. Agricultural calendar 农业日历

4. ”Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) “太极拳”（终极目标）

5. The Oriental philosophy 东方哲学

===Questions===

1-Why was Chinese astrology invented?

2-How Chinese astrology relates to a person’s divine destiny?

3-What important role does the Chinese zodiac play in Chinese culture?

4- What is Chinese astrology based on?

5-Is Chinese astrology accurate?

===Answers===
1. To predict the future, to determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.

2. A person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu.

3. The year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year.

4. The Chinese zodiac is a classification scheme based on the lunar calendar that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating 12-year cycle. The 12-year cycle is an approximation to the 11.85-year orbital period of Jupiter.

5. Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.

===References===

Ting, Julian (2014), 占星學量子, createspace, ISBN 978-149373455-9

何丙郁. (2003). ''Chinese mathematical astrology: reaching out to the stars'', Routledge, ISBN 0415297591

Sun, Xiaochun, Jacob Kistemaker. (1997). ''The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society''. Brill. 3-4. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.

Kistemaker, Jacob, Sun, Xiaochun (1997). The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.

""Almanac" "lunar" zodiac beginning of spring as the boundary dislocation? — China Network". 16 February 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2011.

Eberhard, Wolfram. (1986). ''A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols''. Routledge and Keegan Paul, London. 93, 105, 309.

"Five Elements(Wu Xing)". YourChineseAstrology.com

==Spring Festival Couplets - Cao Runxin 曹润鑫 - 202070080634 - 英语口译 ==
[[File:Chunlian.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Chunlian, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]

===Spring Festival Couplets===
Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. It is the most common and important custom when celebrating Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China.With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).

Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. Pasting the Spring Festival Couplets on gateposts or doors is one of the most common and important customs when Chinese People celebrate Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China. With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).

Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made of peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).

The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also traditions for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China.In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).

There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China. In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Zhang Yanchen 张砚宸. (2020). 中国春联的文化内涵与艺术特色探微 [The exploration of the cultural connotations and artistic features of Chinese Spring Couplets]. ''汉字文化'' Chinese Character Culture (19) 34-35.
*Li Wenyan 李文艳. (2018). 春联的演变历程及民俗价值 [The evolution and folk value of Spring Festival Couplets]. ''艺术品鉴'' Art Appreciation (24) 211-212.
*Qian Yu, Liu Tao 钱钰，刘涛. (2018). 从桃符到春联的演进——基于祝由文化兴衰的视角 [The Evolution from Taofu to Spring Couplets - A perspective based on the rise and fall of Zhuyu Culture]. ''民间文化论坛'' Folk Culture Forum (01) 75-83.
*Han Daqiang 韩大强. (2014). 论春节仪式中符号元素的文化意蕴——以春联、门神为例 [On the cultural implications of symbolic elements in Chinese New Year Rituals - Taking Spring Couplets and Door Gods as examples]. ''信阳师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Xinyang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) (05) 83-87.

===Terms and Expressions ===
Spring Festival Couplets, Spring Couplets, Chinese New Year Couplets, New Year Scroll 春联

Paste 贴

Horizontal scroll 横联

Upper scroll 上联

Lower scroll 下联

===Questions ===
1.What’s the purpose of pasting Spring Festival Couplets?

2.What’s the historical origin of Spring Festival Couplets?

3.How to read the Spring Festival Couplets?

4.How to do with the Old Couplets?

===Answers ===
1.To expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.

2.It originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty.

3.First, look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.

4.Remove the old scrolls until the next New Year or tear them off after the Lantern Festival.

==Instruments, Guzheng - Chen Han 陈涵 - 202070080580 - 英语笔译==

[[File:Guzheng.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Guzheng in the shop, photo by Christopher Hsia. Click[https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Even_more_Guzhengs_(%E5%8F%A4%E7%AE%8F)_cropped.jpg#mw-jump-to-license]for original source.]]

===Guzheng===

''Guzheng'' or ''Zheng'' is one of the oldest traditional ethnic musical instruments in China. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments. As early as 2500 years ago, ''zheng'' has become an important instrument and was widespread at that time. Due to the long history, its primitive simplicity and elegant sound, people are used to calling it ''guzheng'' (''gu'' refers to “ancient”). It has beautiful timbre, broad ranges, rich performance skills and strong expressive power, so it is deeply loved by Chinese. (Wang Xiaohong, Gu Haijun 2019, 69)

There are varied accounts for how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51).

There are different opinions about how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51).--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were originally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is approximately rectangular, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. As the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)

The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were oiginally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is about a rectangle, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. As the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:Fingerpicks.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Using fingerpicks to play the guzheng. Image from Baidu. Click[https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=古筝&step_word=&hs=0&pn=27&spn=0&di=9900&pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0&istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=-1&st=-1&cs=3246661627%2C3658564396&os=3335747328%2C3552694810&simid=0%2C0&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1718&fr=&fmq=1607348039297_R&fm=result&ic=&s=undefined&hd=&latest=&copyright=&se=&sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefined&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=0&oriquery=&objurl=http%3A%2F%2Fi2.hdslb.com%2Fbfs%2Farchive%2F6a84e824b3507f96cd3f55df9c2d38744bb81962.jpg&fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Ff_z%26e3Bojtk5_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Fojtk5AzdH3F%25Ec%25la%25bC%25El%25b8%25ln%25Em%25AE%25bA%25El%25ba%25l9%25Ec%25bF%25A9%25E0%25AD%25lD%3Fiwfet1j5%3D8%26fjw6viet1j5%3D8&gsm=1c&rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=&force=undefined]for original source.]]

The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke the sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the stings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)

The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made from materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke the sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the strings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, several other schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school. (Cao Yue 2002, 84)

Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, new schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school. (Cao Yue 2002, 84)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated a TV show—''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classic music competition show. In a performance, Wang played the ''guzheng'' to merge the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)

In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated a TV show—''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classic music competition show. In a performance, Wang merged the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'' by playing ''guzheng'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

From ancient times to the present, the charm of the ''guzheng'' has never diminished. The combination of cultural heritage and modern techniques has made this national musical instrument more radiant.

===References===

*Cao Yue 曹月. (2019). 古筝的主要流派与风格特征 [The main schools and styles of the guzheng]. ''东南大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Southeast University (Philosophy and Social Science) (04) 84-87.
*Duan Lili 段丽丽. (2006). 古筝的起源与发展 [The origin and development of the guzheng]. ''民族音乐'' Folk Music (01) 57-58.
*Gao Yiwei 高祎蔚. (2020). 浅谈古筝演奏中音色的体现及把握 [The embodiment and grasp of timbre in guzheng performance]. ''中国文艺家'' Chinese literary artists (05) 39+165.
*Jin Jianmin 金建民. (1988). 古筝起源之谜 [The mystery of the origin of the guzheng]. ''中国音乐'' Chinese Music (01) 51.
*Liu Xueqi 刘雪琦. (2019). 浅谈古筝的起源与发展历程 [The origin and development history of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (14) 83.
*Tong Guiying 佟桂影. (2017). 王中山古筝作品的艺术特征研究 [Research on the artistic characteristics of Wang Zhongshan's guzheng performances]. ''才智'' Talents (24) 197-198.
*Wang Xiaohong 王晓红, Gu Haijun 顾海珺. (2019). 浅谈古筝传承与发展 [The development of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (23) 69.

===Terms and Expressions===

*Meng Tian 蒙恬
*Zhao Lin 赵璘
*''Records on Words'' 《因话录》
*anterior mountain 前岳山
*posterior mountain 后岳山
*''Yan Zhu'' 雁柱
*string pegs 弦钉
*turning box 调音盒
*zither feet 琴足
*paulownia 桐木
*mahogany 红木
*''Dai Mao'' 玳瑁
*''Yi Jia'' 义甲
*''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo'' 勾、托、劈、挑、抹
*''High Mountains and Running Water'' 《高山流水》
*''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' 《汉宫秋月》
*''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' 《寒鸦戏水》
*''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' 《柳青娘》
*Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu, Luo Jiuxiang 王巽之、曹正、曹东扶、罗九香
*Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang 王中山、袁莎、周望
*''National Music Ceremony'' 《国乐大典》

===Questions===

1. What kind of musical instrument does the ''guzheng'' belong to?

2. Why the ''guzheng'' is deeply loved by Chinese?

3. Who is Meng Tian?

4. According to the legend, how did the ''se'' develop into the ''zheng''?

5. How many strings does the ''guzheng'' have? How long is the guzheng?

6. What is the function of movable bridges?

7. What are used by ''guzheng'' performers to play the instrument? And What are they also called?

8. In ancient times, what materials were the fingerpicks made of?

9. Generally speaking, how does the players strike notes?

10. What styles can ''guzheng'' be divided into?

11. Which school does ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belong to?

12. Do you know any other ''guzheng'' music? Please list some pieces.

===Answers===

1. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments.

2. It has beautiful timbre, broad range, rich performance skills and strong expressive power.

3. He is a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), and a legend says the early form of the ''zheng'' is said to have been invented by him.

4. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part.

5. It usually has 21 strings and is 163 centimeters long.

6. They are moved to change the timbres.

7. ''Guzheng'' performers use fingerpicks to play the instrument. They are also called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia''.

8. In ancient times, fingerpicks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade.

9. Performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges.

10. The Northern school and the Southern school.

11. ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belongs to the Shandong school.

12. ''Harvest Celebration'' (''Qing Feng Nian'' 《庆丰年》), ''Fighting the Typhoon'' (''Zhan Tai Feng'' 《战台风》) and ''Song of the Fishermen'' (''Yu Zhou Chang Wan'' 《渔舟唱晚》).

==Facial Make-up - Chen Jingjing 陈静静 - 202070080581 - 英语笔译==
===Facial makeup===

Facial makeup, a sort of makeup art used in stage performance, is painted on the face of traditional opera singers in China and varies when it come to different types of role. The character roles in Beijing opera are divided into four main types according to the sex, age, social status and profession of the character. Sheng refers to male roles and is divided into laosheng (middle-aged or old men), xiaosheng (young men) and wusheng ( men with martial skills). Dan refers to female roles and is also subdivided into various types. Qingyi is a woman with a strict moral code; and laodan is an elderly woman. Jing refers to the roles with painted faces. They are usually warriors, statesmen or even demons. Chou, clown, is a comic character and can be recognized at first sight for his special make-up.(Wang Hai 2018, 62)

The facial makeup of “sheng” and “dan” is quite simple with a thin layer of powder, called “plain face” while that of “jing” and “chou” is relatively complicated, and the former, in particular, is applied with heavy color and complicated patterns, thus gaining the name of “painted face”. In Beijing Opera, facial make-up, which is applied to Jing roles only, shows the character’s age and personality by using different colors. “Chou” is commonly called the clown as they are accustomed to wiping a patch of white powder on the nose.(Wang Hai 2018, 62)

People hold different views when speaking of the origin of the facial makeup. It is said facial makeup was closely related to a kind of dance, called Damian, which appeared in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and thrived in the Tang Dynasty. It was performed by a single man aiming to extol King Lanling Gao Changgong’s outstanding military service and merits. He was courageous and good-looking and was bound to win every time he worn a mask that seemed frightening in the battlefield. As for the facial makeup used in opera, it is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.(Cao Juan 2019, 58)

The legendary drama played a dominant role in Ming Dynasty, rich in content and fine in role division. Both jing and chou wear their own special facial makeup. The basic color is mostly designed based on the description in the drama literature or the singers’ personal imagination. For instance, facial makeup of Guanyu is red and that of Baozhen is black. Their brow and eyes are exaggerated in some way. The pattern ratio has changed as well. Unlike the Ming Dyansty, there are both simple and sophisticated facial makeups with the same basic color. In the Mid-Qing Dynasty, as the local drama arose, facial makeup varied greatly in different places and possessed distinct local features and folk characteristics. More than 300 kinds of dramas sprung up after the 18th century. Therefore, the drama characters mount and their division is much more finer. More colors like blue, green, yellow, grey and orange are added in jing.(He Weiwei 2015, 138)

Red

Red facial makeup is symbolic of loyalty, upright and integrity like the characters Guan Yu and Wu Han.

Black

Black facial makeup gives people the impression that the actor is serious,courageous and wise like Bao Zheng, a impartial official. It also stands for mighty force and boldness like Zhang Fei in drama the Three Kingdoms and Li Kuai in drama Water Margin of the Marsh.

White

White facial makeup bears a derogatory sense, indicating a deceitful and suspicious nature like Cao Cao in drama the Three Kingdoms and Yan Song, Qin Hui.

Blue

Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly like Ma Wu and Dou Erdun.

Purple

Purple facial makeup shows more sedate and righteous like Xu Yanzhao and Zhuan Zhu.

Golden

Golden facial makeup symbolizes dignity and power fitting roles like supernatural being such as Tathagata (Sakyamuni, the creator of Buddhism) and Erlang Shen (a Chinese God with a third truth-seeing eye in the middle of his forehead).

The features of facial makeup are mainly as follows:
First, it is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness.Second, it is closely related to the character’s personality.Thirdly, its pattern is stylized. Chinese Peking opera makeup is favored by many opera enthusiasts and is widely known both at home and abroad, having been regarded as one of the mark of traditional Chinese culture.
It is derived from the stage and could be seen on some large buildings, packages of some commercials, various porcelains and people’s clothes in different styles. It is far beyond the scope of stage use, showing its status in people’s heart and strong vitality. Out of curiosity and affection for facial makeup in Chinese opera, a great many foreign friends and Chinese of insight start to explore the mystery of it.(Cao Juan, 2019, 61)

===B. Terms and Expressions===

painted face 花脸

clown 丑角

Sheng 生

Dan 旦

Jing 净

Chou 丑

Qingyi 青衣

xiaosheng 小生

laosheng 老生

wusheng 武生

Gao Changgong 高长恭

legend，romance 传奇剧

Erlang Shen, Erlang 二郎神

Tathagata, Buddha 如来佛

Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Water Margin of the Marsh 水浒传

===C. Questions===

1.How many types are character roles divided into in Beijing opera?

2.What are the differences bbetween Sheng and Dan?

3.What are the special features of Chou?

4.What is the function of facial mask in Beijing opera?

5.What are the main features of facial makeup?

6.What are the characteristics of characters wearing blue facial makeup?
===Answers===
1.Four types:Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou.

2.Sheng refers to male roles while Dan refers to female roles.

3.A patch of white powder is wiped on their nose.

4.It is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.

5.It is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness and is closely related to the character’s personality and its pattern is stylized.

6.Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly

===References===

He Weiwei 何伟伟.(2015).浅谈京剧脸谱的色彩研究[Study on the colors of the facial makeup in Beijing opera].艺术科技 Art and Technology ,28(04):138-139.

Cao Juan 曹娟.(2019).中国京剧脸谱之考究[Study on Beijing opera facial makeup].中国京剧,(01):58-61.

Wang Hai 王海.(2018).京剧脸谱程式化特征与传统文化元素[Features of Beijing opera facial makeup and the traditional elements it related to].中国京剧 Chinese Peking Opera,(08):62-65.

==Literature, Science Fiction, and Fantasy - Dashkin, Gennadii - Student No.201911080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

=== Three Worldwide Famous Chinese Novelists of Modern Science Fiction and Fantasy===

Nowadays, modern literature is one of the most interesting and gorgeous sides of worldwide cultural processes. It heals soul and heart and can change everything to its best. However, it can be difficult sometimes to talk about literature without dividing it into genres. We can guess that the modern generation in the whole world prefers to read something about the future. Something, that can help to understand what will be next. And that is why one of the most popular genres are with no doubt - Science Fiction and Fantasy. So, let's see who are the most popular Chinese sci-fi and fantasy authors who broaden our mental horizons.

====1.Liu Cixin（刘慈欣）====

Liu Cixin was born in 1963 in Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, 400 kilometers from Beijing. Other famous natives of the area were Gaozu, the founder of the Tang Imperial Dynasty, and Jia Zhangke, the chief filmmaker of modern China. The parents of the future writer worked in a mine in Shanxi, and his first conscious years fell on the heyday of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). (Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America 2019, 1)

Liu received his technical education from North China University of Water and Electricity. After graduation, he worked as a computer engineer at a power plant in his native Yangquan. Now Liu Qixin is combining his studies of literature with the post of chief engineer of the China Energy Investment Corporation at the Nianziguan Power Plant.

Liu Cixin started writing relatively late. At 26, he wrote China in 2185, but the book never saw the light of the day. Mostly this was due to the consequences of the Cultural Revolution - in the late 80s, almost no science fiction literature was published in China. Later, when the opportunity arose to publish the novel, the writer himself re-read it, considered it second-rate, badly written, and naive, and decided that he did not deserve publication. However, Liu Cixin did not give up and in 1999 he released another novel, written by him at a young age, but significantly modified and edited for publication. This is how Liu Cixin's first big book appeared - the novel "Supernova Era". Before that, some of his stories were published in magazines, but the writer's name became really noticeable after the publication of this book. In it, as a result of the radiation of a supernova, all people over 30 are threatened with death within a year. Since then, the life of humanity has changed dramatically, and although the doomed older generation made heroic efforts to make the existence of young people better, a year later the world is plunging into an abyss of chaos and violence. (Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,352)

Liu's first books were warmly received in China, but nevertheless, the real success came to the author only in 2006, when he published the first part of his trilogy "Memory of the Earth's Past" - the novel "The Problem of Three Bodies" in the Chinese journal Science Fiction World. This book first made the writer a real star in his homeland, and 7 years later, when the Chinese-American science fiction writer Ken Liu translated it into English, and all over the world. The novel has become so popular that the entire trilogy is often referred to as "The Three-Body Problem," although this is not formally true.

Interesting fact: Such famous people as Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg called this book the best and recommended it for everyone to read.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In 2006, the book won the Galaxy Award, the main Chinese literary science fiction award, and after being translated into English, it was nominated for all three major world awards: Hugo, Locus, and Nebula. The novel only won the Hugo Award, but in 2017 the third part of the Eternal Life of Death trilogy took over Locus.

Liu Cixin is definitely a unique writer, with his own style, philosophy, and special vision of science fiction. So far, only three of his novels have been published outside of China, but he has already won such recognition that Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg recommend reading the Cixin trilogy. But the main thing that Liu Cixin has already managed to prove with his books is that science fiction literature is capable of giving generous shoots not only on the basis of European culture. Liu Cixin is the first person outside of the Western world to achieve resounding success in science fiction. And, perhaps, his trilogy is just the beginning of a new global phenomenon. After all, it's not for nothing that many experts have been saying for several years that the future belongs to China. It is very likely that this phrase refers not only to politics and economics but also to science fiction literature.

In this section, I would recommend adding authors whose books Liu Cixin recommends reading.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆） ====

Today this author is called by others the “Chinese William Gibson”. He can also be called one of the leaders of Chinese science-fiction and a cyberpunk novelist. He was born in China in 1981 in a seaside province in southeastern China called Guangdong, which borders Hong Kong and Macau. To say more accurately he grew up a few miles from Guiyu, the largest waste dump. Mountains of scrap electronics are shipped there every year from all over the world. Thousands of workers sort through the garbage in search of something that is suitable for recycling. This topic became the central topic in a novel called “Waste Tide”.

Also, by the early 2000s, Chen Qiufang had become a big fan of virtual chats and the Internet. He saw great potential in the Internet and technologies in general, an opportunity to change the world for the better. After graduation, Chen worked with Google, Baidu, and co-founded Noitom, a virtual reality startup in Beijing. As science fiction began to gain popularity in China and receive support from the government, Qiufan turned to full-fledged novels.

His debut book was ''The Empty Wave'', "combining realism and allegory to represent the hybridity of humans and machines." Chen Qiufan's novels and stories won three Galaxy Awards and twelve Chinese Nebula Awards. His works have been translated into German, French, Finnish, Korean, Czech, Italian, Japanese, Polish, and Russian.

His book ''Waste Tide'' became one of the most discussed books around the world and got universal acclaim from critics and usual readers. The fantastic mix of dark future with reality components made this book a guidebook for those who are worried about ecological problems and the darkest sides of human progress.

An interesting fact that can also be added: In a year he watches about 100 films and reads 50 books in any way related to science fiction and Cyberpunk.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.Rebecca F. Kuang (匡蘦秀)====

When Rebecca was four years old, her family emigrated to the United States from Guangzhou, China. Kuang's father grew up in Leiyang, in Hunan province, and his mother in Hainan Island.

Quang grew up in Dallas, Texas, and later went to Georgetown University in large part because of the college's discussion team. Quang began writing The Opium War when she worked as a debate trainer in China during a break from her studies. Rebecca always liked writing, but she was afraid that an education related to literature might not give her a profession in demand. But during the direct work on the book, she completed several literary courses. As a result, her first novel was published when she was only 22 years old.

Rebecca graduated from the university in June 2018. She further attended Magdalene College, Cambridge University as a recipient of the 2018 Marshall Fellowship, where she earned her Master of Philosophy in Sinology. She is currently pursuing a Master's Degree in Contemporary Sinology from Oxford University.

Her debut novel, The Opium War, is a war fantasy setting inspired by the history and culture of China. The Opium War is a dark fantasy genre. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century. The conflict refers to the Second Sino-Japanese War, but the scenery is inspired by the Song Dynasty. The novel accurately recreates the social, mythological, and philosophical realities of China of the chosen era.

I also suggest adding that she has been involved in several new projects at the moment, such as the well-known Star Wars. Can you write something about this?--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Don't forget to add sources at the end of each paragraph.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

1. Science fiction - 科幻

2. Fantasy - 奇幻

3. Horizon - 地平线

4. Broad - 拓宽

5. Hybrid - 杂种

6. The plot - 情节

7. Garbage - 垃圾堆

8. Heyday - 壮年

9. Supernova - 超新星

===Questions===

1. What was the first book written by Liu Cixin?

2. What is the most popular trilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?

3. Who is called Chinese William Gibson?

4. What is Rebecca Quang's Opium War plot based on?

===Answers===

1. Supernova Era

2. Memory of the Earth's Past

3. Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆）

4. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century.

===References===

1. Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/03/magazine/ken-liu-three-body-problem-chinese-science-fiction.html

2. Liu Cixin, Supernova Era, 2019. 352 pp.

3. Chen Qiufan, Waste Tide, 2019. 342 pp.

4. Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018. 530 pp.

==Stilts - Chen Yongxiang 陈永相英语笔译 202070080582==
[[File:stilts.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Stilts presentation during the Miliangtun Stilt Festival, image from Baike. Click [http://img3.imgtn.bdimg.com/it/u=2060438651,2837589998&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

===Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage — Miliangtun Village Stilts===

<center>Chen Yongxiang 陈永相英语笔译 202070080582</center>

====Introduction====

Stilt is one of the folk dances of the Han nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near. (Huo Linmo,2018)

Stilt is one of the folk dances of the ''Han'' nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty and bestowed by Emperor Qianlong. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing over 250 years ago. Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performance techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage. (Xingxing,2019)

As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from the "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing. It was bestowed by Emperor Qianlong, and has a history of more than 250 years. Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performing techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage protection project.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic in these funny characters. (Xingxing,2019)

The only serious character among the 13 roles is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords are his signature tricks. Others like the young boy, a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He plays the trick of going fishing because that's his character setting. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to accompany the performance and amuse the audience. (Xingxing,2019)

The show of Kylin Songzi (麒麟送子), which indicates good luck and peace, marks the end of the whole performance. Tuotou lies down flat, the young boy riding on his waist like a living lion. Mr. Plaster and young master raise their waists with Yupo dancing Yangko behind. Fisherman uses his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance. (Xingxing,2019)

The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are, Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic. Among the 13 roles, the only serious one is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords, that's his work. Others like the young boy, just a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He goes fishing because of his fixed character. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to amuse the audience. Gong-players following drum-players, handsome and ugly, they are just like the final fighters. Then it comes the show of Kylin Songzi（麒麟送子）after they stop playing; Tuotou lying flat; Mr. Plaster and young master raising their waists; Yupo dancing Yangko behind, pulling his two legs; Fisherman using his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth; the young boy riding on Tuotou's waist like a lion. Then it follows the routine of going downhill. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

As a renowned fair, Miliangtun Village Stilts is characterized by risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as Yasha Searches the Sea, Su Qin Carries Swords, squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. (Xingxing,2019)

Legs and feet of stilt-walkers must be agile. Jumping the large bench is quite demanding that normal players can hardly accomplish. The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. Stilt-walkers control the balance with waist. They must bend their knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. The upper body and their feet must be coordinated, and swing from side to side to ensure the balance when stepping on the wooden stilts. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing. (Xingxing,2019)

Miliangtun Village Stilts as a renowned fair,are known for the features of risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as ''Yasha Searches the Sea'', ''Su Qin Carries Swords'', squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. Legs and feet must be agile, jumping the large bench is quite demanding that normal players can hardly accomplish. Each of the thirteen roles has its own talents. Tuotou is an adventurous figure who leads the team. The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. The centre of balance is extremely difficult to grasp. One must bend his knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. Stilt-walkers control the balance with waist, and the upper body and their feet must be coordinated to ensure the balance. Stilt-walkers step on the wooden stilts, swinging from side to side. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair, which will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. As the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts stands out among the stilt fairs and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. It is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny, which is divided into lead in, head stilts command, and separation performance, forming into a fixed set of performance routines after long-term drills since the establishment. Miliangtun Village Stilts has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks.(Sun Miao,2018)

There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair. It will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. Today, Miliangtun Village Stilts as the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, stands out among the stilt fairs in Beijing and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. Miliangtun Village Stilt is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny. A fixed set of performance routines has gradually formed after long-term drills since its founding. It is divided into lead in, head stilt command, separation in formal performance. Stilts-walkers individually perform difficult tricks such as the big jump and the onion-pulling, then amuse and perform in separation, ending with the show of Kylin Songzi, which indicates good luck and peace. Miliangtun Village Stilt has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

====Terms and Expressions====

Miliangtun (village name) 米粮屯

stilts 高跷

intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产

folk dance 民间舞蹈

Toutou 陀头

Laozuozi 老坐子

young boy 小二哥

young master 公子

Mr.Plaster 药先生

Choupo 丑婆

fisherman渔翁

Yupo 渔婆

wood-cutter 柴翁

handsome and ugly drum-players 俊鼓和丑鼓

handsome and ugly gong-players 俊锣和丑锣

====Questions====

1. Where does Miliangtun Village Stilts originate?

2. How many years of history does Miliangtun Village Stilts have?

3. How many roles in Miliangtun Village Stilts?

4. When was Miliangtun Village Stilts listed as the intangible cultural heritage?

5. How long is the shortest and the longest stilts?

====Answers====

1. Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing.

2. More than 250 years.

3. 13.

4. In 2006.

5. The shortest stilt is two feet long, and the longest reaches over five feet.

====References====

Huo Linmo 霍淋漠. (2018). 高碑店市河头村高跷会考察与研究. [Investigation and research on stilts fair in Hetou Village, Gaobeidian City]. Hebei University. 河北大学.

Sun Miao 孙淼. (2018). "一跷多艺": 胜芳高跷会的舞体表征与比较研究. ["Multi-skills with one stilt": A comparative study of the dance style of Shengfang stilt fair]. ''长江丛刊'', (24)18.

Xingxing 邢星. (2019). 米粮屯高跷 Miliangtun Village Stilts. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%B1%B3%E7%B2%AE%E5%B1%AF%E9%AB%98%E8%B7%B7%E4%BC%9A/12762743?fr=aladdin

Intangible cultural heritage Miliangtun Village Stilts. (2019). https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1643344511003907548&wfr=spider&for=pc

--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:46, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

==Chinese Lion Dancing - Ding Daifeng 丁代凤 202070080583 英语笔译==

===Introduction===

Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of luck and good fortune. However, there is no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,77)

Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of good fortune. However, there was no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.

When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva to protect Buddha, people gradually have a good impression on it as a symbol of wisdom.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

There are a number of stories about the origin of lion dance. Here is one of the sayings. During the Ming Dynasty, it was said that a monster always damaged crops in Guangdong at the end of the year. Local people called it “Nian”. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.(Zhang Guobin 2019,157)

In lion dance, lions are made of colorful cloth strips, and each lion is usually performed by two people, one handling the head and the other moving the body and tail. Under the music of gongs and drums, performers dress up as lions and make various forms of lion movements. The lion dance is an art which combines martial arts, dance and music together. Originating in the Han Dynasty, lion dance has prevailed among Chinese people and spread throughout all over China since the Tang Dynasty. There are mainly two kinds of lion dancing in China: northern lion dancing and southern lion dancing.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

===Northern lion dancing===

The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur, and even the pants and shoes of performers are the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance is performed by two people. Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur even witrh the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance two people. Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:58, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

===Southern lion dancing===

Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom（AD 221-263）. Guan Gong lion performs bravely, Zhang Fei lion's action is rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion is calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing, dancers use different “Ma Bu” or horse stances, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom（AD 221-263）. Guan Gong lion is brave, Zhang Fei lion rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing through using different “Ma Bu” or horse stances by performers, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 10:02, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

Dancers usually perform the traditional custom of “Cai Qing”, literally meaning "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming. People use lettuces as greens and hang them with red envelopes. The lion dancers perform in front of the greens with hesitation, then finally jump up and eat the lettuces in one gulp. (Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

In recent years, in order to maintain the characteristics of the traditional Chinese lion dance, the southern lion dancing and the northern lion dancing complement each other and improve together. (Liu Xing 2019,39)

===Terms and Expressions===

Western Regions 西域

mount 坐骑

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

gong 锣

northern lion dancing 南狮

southern lion dancing 北狮

colorful silk ball 绣球

wooden stakes 木桩

spiritual resemblance神似

Liu Bei lion 刘备狮

Guan Gong lion 关公狮

Zhang Fei lion 张飞狮

sworn brothers 结义兄弟

horse stances 马步

Cai Qing 采青

lettuces 生菜

===Questions===

1. How long is the history of lion dance in China?

2. Why did people gradually accept lion as a sacred animal?

3. Why did people use lion dance to celebrate the New Year?

4. What is the main difference between southern lion dancing and northern lion dancing?

5. What is the center of southern lion dancing?

6. How many colors are there in the heads of southern lions? And what are they?

7. What is “Cai Qing”? And what do you know about “Cai Qing”?

===Answers===

1. It is with a history of about 2000 years.

2. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.

3. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.

4. The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion, but southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance.

5. It is in southern China’s Guangdong province.

6. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow.

7. It means "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming.

===References===

Liu Xing刘兴.(2019). 从文化结构看舞龙舞狮运动的现代化发展[Modern Development of Dragon and Lion Dance from the Perspective of Cultural Structure]. 体育师友Sports Teachers and Friends 42(04): 37-39.

Yu Zhaojie于兆杰.(2008).中国舞狮的起源及其发展演变[The Origin and Development of Lion Dance in China]. 搏击. 武术科学Wushu Science (06): 75-76.

Zhang Guobin张国斌.(2019).中国传统舞龙舞狮运动历史文化探索及传播研究[Research on the Historical and Cultural Exploration and Dissemination of Chinese Traditional Dragon and Lion Dance]. 散文百家Prose Hundred (10): 157-158.

Zhang Yanqing张延庆.(2003). 中国舞狮的起源与文化演变[Origin and Cultural Evolution of Lion Dancing in China]. 体育文化导刊Sports Culture Guide (11): 77-78.

==Literature, Tang-Song - Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉 202070080584 英语笔译==
===A. The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===
[[File:Tang Song Ba Da Jia.jpg]]

===Brief Introduction of The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===

The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and Three Su(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the ancient prose movement in the Song Dynasty, and Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the advacators of the "Ancient Prose Movement". Su Shi, Su Xun and Su Zhe are called Three Su. What else, Su Xun is the their father and Su Shi is the older brother. While Su Shi's teacher is Ouyang Xiu, who is also the teacher of Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25）

The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the ancient prose movement in the Song Dynasty, and Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the advacators of the "Ancient Prose Movement". Su Shi, Su Xun and Su Zhe are called "Three Su". What's more, Su Xun is their father and Su Shi is the older brother. While Su Shi's teacher is Ouyang Xiu, who is also the teacher of Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25）--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, they both advocated prose and opposd parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their sucessive waves of innovation of ancient ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)

In a word, they all advocated prose and opposed parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their successive waves of innovation of ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1. Han Yu'''
[[File:Han Yu.jpg]]

Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as “ The Decline of Eight Generations” by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasty. Han Yu was called “Han Liu” with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu’s poems as “ Du poem Han pen” by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as “ The Article Giant” and “ Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations” with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory. (Hou Benta 2014, 135)

Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was a native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as “ The Decline of Eight Generations” by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasties. Han Yu was called “Han Liu” with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu’s poems as “ Du poem Han pen” by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as “ The Article Giant” and “ Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations” with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory. (Hou Benta 2014, 135)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in advocating the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)

Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. Liu Zongyuan'''
[[File:Liu Zongyuan.jpg]]

Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong , now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong ", " Mr. Hedong ", also known as" Liu Liuzhou " because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Changan and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.

Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong, now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong", " Mr. Hedong ", also known as "Liu Liuzhou" because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Chang'an and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu ", with Liu Yuxi as " Liu Liu ", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu ". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)

He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu", with Liu Yuxi as "Liu Liu", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

He was a deep-thinking philosopher and litterateur, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude in writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)

He was a philosopher and litterateur with many wise ideas, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude to writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3. Ouyang Xiu'''
[[File:Ouyang Xiu.jpg]]

Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the “Liu Yi scholar”, which means that he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone. He was native in Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji’an city in Jiangxi province but born in Mianzhou, now Minayang city in Sichuan province.

Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the “Liu Yi scholar”, which means that he had ten thousand volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone. He was a native in Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji’an city in Jiangxi province but born in Mianzhou, now Mianyang city in Sichuan province.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Xiu’s poems, Ci and prose were all the crown of that time. His poetry was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style stressing on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was his representatives.

Ouyang Xiu’s poems, Cis and proses were all the crown of that time. His poetry was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style stressing on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was one of his representatives.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu’s ancient prose, and led the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, Ouyang Xiu not only drove away the odd style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation with his own unique style and high talent. It has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height. (Hou Benta 2014, 136)

Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu’s ancient prose, and led the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, Ouyang Xiu not only drove away the old style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation with his own unique style and high talent. It has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height. (Hou Benta 2014, 136)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''4. Su Xun'''
[[File:Su Xun.jpg]]

Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. In 19 years old, he married Mrs. Cheng. Later in 27 years old, he determined to study hard. After decade of hard work, he made a huge academic progress.

Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. He married Mrs. Cheng at the age of 19. Later when he was 27, he determined to study hard. After a decade of hard work, he made huge academic progress.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Su Xun was a man of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world ", to" apply to the present ". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Because he had a better understanding of that social reality and was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot. (Zhou Zhenfu, 2016, 27)

Su Xun was a man of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world", to "apply to the present". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Because he had a better understanding of social reality and was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot. (Zhou Zhenfu, 2016, 27)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''5. Su Shi'''
[[File:Su Shi.jpg]]

Su Shi, with a fame as " Dongpo Jushi ", was native in Meishan in Sichuan . He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty .

Su Shi, with a fame as " Dongpo Jushi ", was a native in Meishan in Sichuan. He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Su Shi has made great achievements in poetry, Ci, prose, calligraphy, painting and so on. He was regarded as one of the most outstanding man in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. His was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area, so he was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)

Su Shi has made great achievements in poetry, Ci, prose, calligraphy, painting and so on. He was regarded as one of the most outstanding men in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. He was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area, so he was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called “Su Men Four bachelors”.

Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage.(Zhangjian 2019, 1) Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called “Su Men Four bachelors”.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6. Su Zhe'''
[[File:Su Zhe.jpg]]

Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou , now Sichuan province. In the Jiayou second year (in 1057), he with his brother Su Shi climbed jinshi branch. Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He was good at politics and history. He discussed world affairs in some political works such as The New Theory and the Six States. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode , such as The "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)

Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou, now Sichuan province. In the the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), Su Shi, together with his brother, climbed jinshi branch. Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He was good at politics and history. He discussed world affairs in some political works such as The New Theory and the Six States. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode, such as The "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''7. Wang Anshi'''
[[File:Wang Anshi.jpg]]

Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo . He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province .

Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo. He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature aimed to serve the society first, that means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary propositions because his essays were mostly about the enlightenment of political decrees and suitable for world use. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)

Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature should aim to serve the society first. That means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary propositions because his essays were mostly about the enlightenment of political decrees and suitable for world use. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''8. Zeng Gong'''
[[File:Zeng Gong.jpg]]

Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In Jiayou second year (in 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng" , including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.

Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng", including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text. (Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple and little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments, for example, the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In these works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.

Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text.(Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple with little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments, for example, the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In these works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9. Comparison between the Ancient Prose Movement and Renaissance'''

Although there was seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the Middle Ancient period of Western history. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their respective cultures.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)

Although there were seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the Middle Ancient period of Western history. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their cultures respectively.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison in ideology:

The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the pre-Qin period and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome. (Wang Yaping 2001, 8)Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.

The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the pre-Qin period and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.(Wang Yaping 2001, 8) Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison in writing style:

The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient prose, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of the Tang Dynasty studied the simple language style of the pre-Qin period, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek period.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)

The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient proses, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of the Tang Dynasty studied the simple language style of the pre-Qin period, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek period.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison in literary form:

The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the six dynasties, but also laid a good creative foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language. (He Lei 2017, 159) While although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theory and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said :" Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)

The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the six dynasties, but also laid a good creative foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language.(He Lei 2017, 159) Although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theories and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said: "Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===B. Terms and Expressions===
The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters 唐宋八大家

Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties 《唐宋八大家文钞》

Ancient Prose Movement 古文运动

parallel prose 骈文

The Decline of Eight Generations 文起八代之衰

The Article Giant 文章巨公

Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations 百代文宗

Han Changli Collection 《韩昌黎集》

External collection 《外集》

The Teacher's Theory《师说》

Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties 先秦两汉时期

writing in classical Chinese 文言文

feudal provincial of Liuzhou 柳州刺史

official supervisor of imperial censor 监察御史

Liu He Dong Colloection 《柳河东集》

Northern Song Dynasty 北宋

a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions 金石遗文一千卷

Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties 三代

the crown of that time 一时之冠

Southern Tang Dynasty 南唐

Yu Feng 余风

The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong 《欧阳文忠公文集》

the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement北宋诗文革新运动

Heng Lun 《衡论》

Duke Jingguo 荆国公

The Book to the Emperor 《上皇帝书》

Dongpo Jushi 东坡居士

Ci writer 词人

Unconstrained Ci School豪放派

literary and artistic attainments 文学艺术造诣

the first all-round talent in ancient China 中国古代第一全才

Su Men Four bachelors 苏门四学士

the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council 《上枢密韩太尉书》

The New Theory《新论》

On the Six Kingdoms 《六国论》

Ode 赋

The Ode to Ink bamboo 《墨竹赋》

Seven Zengs of Nanfeng 南丰七曾

the doctrine before the text先道后文

the Book to Ouyang She Ren 《上欧阳舍人书》

the Book to Bachelor Cai 《上蔡学士书》

the Six Dynasties 六朝

===C. Questions===
1.Who are the pioneers of the Ancient Prose Movement?

2.Which kind of prose they advocate in the Ancient Prose Movement?

3.Do you know any representatives of Liu Zongyuan?

4.Why Ouyang Xiu is called "Liu Yi Scholar"?

5.What’s the relationship among Su Xun, Su Shi and Su Zhe?

6.Who are the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng"?

7.Do you know any about the Renaissance?

===D. Answers===

1.Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.

2.The prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties.

3.The "Liu He Dong Colloection".

4.Because he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone.

5.Su Xun is the father of Su Shi and Su Zhe. Also, Su Shi is the older brother.

6.Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.

7.The Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.

===References===
Fang Wenben 房本文. (2013). 士族兴衰与骈散消长—唐代古文运动发微 [The rise and fall of nobles and parallel prose- The subtleties of the Ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.

Hou Benta 候本塔. (2014). 论唐、宋古文运动中的韩愈与欧阳修 [On Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu in the Tang and Song Dynasties]. 三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Three Gorges University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition) 36(S1):135-137.

He Lei 何蕾. (2017). 中唐古文运动:社会转型背景下的文体之变 [The Ancient Prose Movement in the Middle Tang Dynasty: Stylistic Changes in the Context of social transformation]. 青海社会科学 Qinghai Social Sciences (03):156-162.

Lu Sihong 芦思宏. (2016). 略论中西文学的复古倾向—以唐代古文运动与意大利文艺复兴为例 [On the retro tendency in Chinese and Western Literature -- a case study of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang Dynasty and the Italian Renaissanc].中外文化与文论 Chinese and Foreign culture and literary theory (01):71-81.

Wang Yaping 王亚平.(2001). 论西欧中世纪的三次文艺复兴 [On the three Renaissance in The Middle Ages in Western Europe]. 东北师大学报 Journal of Northeast Normal University (06):1-8.

Zhangjian 张剑. (2019). 唐宋古文运动的文学维度 [The literary dimension of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 10-28(010).

Zhangjian 张剑. (2019). 唐宋古文运动的思想维度 [The ideological dimension of the Ancient Prose movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 08-26(010).

Zhao Kun 赵鲲. (2016). 中国文学中的两大文学变革运动—古文运动与“五四”新文学运动之比较 [A comparison between the two major literary revolutions in Chinese literature - the Ancient Prose Movement and the May 4th New Literary Movement]. 解放军艺术学院学报 Journal of Pla Art Academy (01):113-119.

Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (2016). 唐宋八大家论 [On the eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 中华活页文选(教师版) Chinese Loose-leaf Selections (Teachers' edition) (12):25-31.

==Music, Instruments, Pipa - Gao Mingzhu 高明珠 - 202070080585 - Translation 英语笔译==
[Please add your student no. and your major.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Pipa--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 08:22, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

===1. A Brief Introduction===

[[File:1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The structure of Pipa. image from 360Baike. Click[https://image.so.com/view?q=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&src=srp&correct=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&ancestor=list&cmsid=b749b87b72b5c9427d6560a39d41548f&cmras=6&cn=0&gn=0&kn=0&crn=0&bxn=0&fsn=60&cuben=0&pornn=0&manun=0&adstar=0&clw=247#id=22b2926be2637560e928bbc9318219fb&currsn=0&ps=58&pc=58]for original source.]]

Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. Being made of wood or bamboo, its speaker box takes the shape of half pear with 4 strings on it ,which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing）" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly using the left hand to press the string and the right hand to play. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank the first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020)

Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. It is made of wood or bamboo, and its speaker box is half pear-shaped with 4 strings on it which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing)" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly and presses the strings with the left hand and plays them with the right hand. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.The Development of Pipa===

The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: first, the Qu Xiang pipa（curving-neck pipa） was introduced into China in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important musical instrument; In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, turning a breakthrough in timbre and performance technology and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: First, the Qu Xiang pipa (curving-neck pipa) was introduced to China during the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important instrument. In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, making a breakthrough in timbre and performance techniques and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one way to play pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style .(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one skill in playing the pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. Chinese traditional instrument playing style melted in its playing characteristics, and the pipa made great breakthroughs in playing skills and artistic expression and other aspects. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but it had changed from the original plucking to pointing, and the posture of playing changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. And it was replaced by Chinese traditional instrument playing style with a major breakthrough in playing skills and artistic expression. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but its initial plucking style had transitioned to finger-playing, and the posture of playing the pipa changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and skills of pipa performance were more mature, and the playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the range of the audience of pipa performance changed from small to large. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and playing skills of pipa performance were more mature, and its playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the audience of pipa performance has changed from less to more. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene. (Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing pipa remained upright. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement of performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so not every class of the group can appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing the pipa also kept vertical. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement in their performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so the common people without cultural accumulation often cannot appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Pipa Schools and Their Chracteristics===

The main reason for the formation of various Pipa schools in China was that the southwards moving of economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North school and the South school. Later, the North school collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The formation of Pipa schools in China was due to the southwards moving of the economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North school and the South school. Later, the North school collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)The Wuxi school

The Wuxi school belongs to the original North school, and is different from the South school in terms of the tremolo. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi school was not as influential as the South school, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The Wuxi School belongs to the Northern School and differs from the Southern School in terms of finger rotation method. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi school was not as influential as the South school, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)The Pinghu school

The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu school's tremolo of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu school's rotation method of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(3)The Pudong School

Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both literary and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and so on.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both civil and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and rolling of four strings.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(4)The Chongming school

The Chongming school also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, The Chongming school pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuance in the slow, the order in the fast, and the soft and lively sound. In the aspect of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The Chongming school also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, the Chongming school pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuity in the slow, the order in the fast, and soft and lively sound. In terms of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(5)The Shanghai school

This school gathers the characteristics of each school and has its own characteristics. In terms of playing techniques, it has created many new fingering techniques and most of the emotional expressions are characterized by masculinity and unrestraint.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

===4.Traditional Pipa Music===

Traditional pipa music can be divided into military songs, literary songs and military-literary songs.

Military song emphasizes the playing skills and strength of the right hand. Its style is magnificent, generous and grand. The music focuses on narration being realistic and narrative. It is often narrated continuously according to the development of content and plot. It has a large structure, vivid and colorful plot, and distinct paragraphs.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) The representative repertoires are "Ambush on All Sides", "Bury Me High", "Hai Qing Hunting the Swan", "General Order in the Han Dynasty". [Maybe you could add the Pinyin version of these songs' names or add them into the terms and expressions so as to let readers know the Chinese.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound heart talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to with simple and moving melody or beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" and so on.

Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left-hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound inner talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to in a simple and moving melody or in a beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" and so on. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Military-literary song is the combination of martial song and literary song. The representative songs are "The Spring Snow", "High Mountain and Flowing Water", "Dragon Boat", "Flute and Drum at Sunset" and so on.

===5.References=== [References] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*[1]360百科 “琵琶”词条[The introduction of pipa on 360 Baike website].https://baike.so.com/doc/4922064-5141209.html.2020

*[2]邓思佳. 中国琵琶流派问题及特征[Schools and characteristics of Chinese pipa][J]. 艺术家,2020,(10):56.

*[3]周显顺,张玉莹. 浅谈琵琶演奏的发展史[A brief analysis of the development of the playing of pipa][J]. 黄河之声,2018,(16):56.

*[4]成玄歌. 琵琶不同派别与文曲、武曲的关系——以平湖派和浦东派为例[The relationship between literary songs and military songs and different schools of pipa----taking Pinghu school and Pudong school as examples][J]. 艺术品鉴,2020,(29):51-52.

[Please correct your format of your references.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Terms and Expressions===

*弹拨乐器—plucked instruments

*汉化—Chinesization

*套曲—divertimentoes

*游牧民族—nomad tribe

*宫廷乐—court music

*轮指法—tremolo

*音色—timbre

*曲目—repertoire

*并弦—parallel string

*指法—fingering techniques

===7.Questions===

1、How many stages did pipa go through during its development?

2、What characteristics did pipa have during Wei and Jin dynasties?

3、What changes had been made to pipa during Ming and Qing dynasties?

4、How many schools does pipa have and what are they?

5、Can you list at least 3 representative repertoires of literary songs played by pipa?

===8.Answers===

1、Four.

2、It still retained its strong western characteristics, and the playing way of it is unchained, heroic and simple.

3、The pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics.

4、Five. They are Wuxi school, Pinghu school, Pudong School, Chongming school andShanghai school.

5、"Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" .

[Please change your sections into the following form.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:02, 14 December 2020 (UTC)
===Terms and Expressions===

==Mythology: Huli-jing - Grosheva, Anna - Student No. 201921080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)==

=== Huli-jing figure in Chinese mythology and its analogs in Japan and Korea ===

The topic of werewolves in the XXI century is perhaps one of the most discussed and studied. Along with vampires and zombies, the image of werewolves is firmly entrenched in world cinema and literature. However, as a rule, speaking about the motives for the transformation of a person into an animal, most people have information mainly about lycanthropy, that is, about the specific transformation of a person into a wolf (werewolf). At the same time, the theme of werewolves is represented by a fairly large number of transformations of a person not only into a wolf but also into other animals. In Chinese mythology, one of the most popular werewolf myths is the myth of the Huli Jing, or werewolf foxes. In the Middle Ages, these myths were very popular and in-demand among writers. But what is the attitude of Huli-Jing in modern China? Are they given a place in modern culture, or do werewolf foxes now sound more like a kind of atavism or a children's fairy tale?

'''1. Huli-jing (狐狸精) in China'''

First, we need to recreate the image of the Huli-Jing and what was seen in ancient and medieval China. Most often, the Huli-Jing was presented in the form of not just a young, but extremely beautiful women. Interestingly, the image of werewolf foxes has been known in China since the times of the Xia dynasty and its founder Yu, who married a nine-tailed white fox who lived on Mount Tu.

People, especially women, believed that thanks to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to fight the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty that the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not completely eradicated in China. Probably, a more competent decision was made to give the werewolf woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor.

People, especially women, believed that due to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to resist the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty reign. That time the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not fully eradicated in other parts of China. Probably, a more competent decision in between acolytes area was made to give the werefox woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Perhaps the most striking examples of where the changed image of the Huli Jing is found can be called the stories of Pu Songlin about werewolf foxes. It is his stories, where girls are subject to the curse of turning into foxes, that reflect their position as hostages of their own life situations or even fears.

The theme of fatal love in the stories of werewolf foxes appears as a continuous line in Pu Songling, this suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their evil ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment.

The theme of fatal love in the stories of werefoxes appear as a continuous line in Pu Songling tales. This suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their savage ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Of course, the image of the Huli Jing as a mythological character by the 21st century was constantly supplemented with small details. We can say that most of the works of literature and cinema, in which the werewolf fox was encountered, for the most part, were very strongly romanticized. Remaining in its own way a relatively neutral character, Huli Jing nevertheless gradually becomes one of the most popular characters of many writers and screenwriters, not only in China but also in many other countries.
A striking and original example of where the Huli Jing appears is the work of the writer Ken Liu entitled "Good Hunt". The author presents not only a very interesting view of the Huli Jing but also explains why the legendary characters of Chinese mythology are gradually disappearing from the memory of the Chinese people.

In addition to literary works, Huli Jing is quite often encountered in Chinese cinema, as an episodic character or a protagonist. One of the most striking images of a werewolf fox can be considered the film "Painted Skin (畫皮)", where the main character is Huli Jing and must eat men's hearts to maintain her youth and beauty. This film is based on the story of Pu Songling and is one of the key works of cinema and modern Chinese culture, which fully reveals the tragedy of the werewolf fox.

In addition, Huli Jing is featured in a fairly large number of Chinese television series, each of which gives its own view of what character Huli Jing should be.

Quite a lot of information about werewolf foxes can be obtained from the TV series "The Legend of the Nine-Tailed Fox" released in 2016. The main interest here is not only a rather vivid description of the Huli Jing, which according to the plot are one family and are forced to seek and return to their place the sacred fruit from the magic garden. This, perhaps, is an attempt to provide an explanation of the true nature of werewolf foxes, who for a long time rushed from good to evil.

Summing up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the first Chinese dynasties, the image of werewolf foxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love.

To sum up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the ancient Chinese dynasties, the image of werefoxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But further the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The appearance of the Huli Jing, which rushes from good to evil for many years, has been romanticized and transformed, becoming a more positive character, although not devoid of some negative features.

'''2. Kitsune (キツネ) in Japan'''

In Japanese folklore, these animals have great knowledge, long life, and magical abilities. Chief among them is the ability to take shapeshift themselves; the fox, according to legend, learns to do this after reaching a certain age (usually a hundred years old, although in some legends it is fifty). Kitsune usually take the form of seductive beauty, a pretty young girl, but sometimes they turn into men. It should be noted that in Japanese mythology there was a mixture of indigenous Japanese beliefs that characterized the fox as an attribute of the god Inari ("Fox-messenger") and the Chinese, who considered foxes to be werewolves, a genus close to demons.

Other abilities commonly ascribed to kitsune include the ability to take possession of other people's bodies, to breathe out or otherwise create fire, to appear in other people's dreams, and the ability to create illusions so complex that they are almost indistinguishable from reality. Some of the legends go further, talking about kitsune with the ability to warp space and time, drive people crazy, or take on such inhuman or fantastic forms as trees of indescribable height or the second moon in the sky.

Kitsune are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari himself is sometimes depicted as a fox. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky.

Kitsunes are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari is sometimes depicted as a fox by himself. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

A kitsune can have up to nine tails. In general, it is believed that the older and stronger the foxes are, the more tails they have. Some sources even claim that a kitsune grows an extra tail every hundred or thousand years of its life. However, foxes found in fairy tales almost always have one, five, or nine tails. When kitsune are given nine tails, their fur turns silvery, white, or gold.

'''3. Kumiho (구미호) in Korea'''

Kumiho - (구 "ku" - nine, 미 "mi" - tail, 호 "ho" - fox - "fox with nine tails") is a folklore animal, the fox of which is first mentioned in the era of Gojoseon. According to legends, only a fox that lives for a thousand years can become 구미호. One of her superpowers is transforming into a beautiful girl. Although in myths there are also references to the becoming of a charming young man. In this form, the mythical animal fell in love with the opposite sex, and then ate their liver (according to some beliefs, and the heart). Why exactly the liver? We can say that the liver contains human energy, that is, we eat and receive the energy that our liver stores.

In a later period, kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever. There are several ways: 구미호 will not eat human flesh and kill for a thousand days. The second option is to eat the liver of a thousand men over a thousand years. The third - will live in a cave without sunlight, eating only wormwood and garlic. And also, if the person who recognized her as 구미호 in human form, keeps this secret for ten years.

===Terms and Expressions===

Shape shifter – 成精

Creature –生物

Seductive –诱人的

Damnation –诅咒

Metaphor –隐喻

Ascribe –属性

Indigenous –土着

Deity – 反面人物

Liver – 肝脏

===References===

1. Pu Song-ling. (2008). Fox charm. Monks-wizards. // Eastern literature. –2008. - P.280.

2. Liu, Ken. (2012). Good Hunting.// Strange Horizons. - 2012. - p. 431.

3. Kang Xiaofei. (2006). The cult of the fox: Power, gender and popular religion in late imperial and modern China//Columbia University Press. – New York, 2006. – Pp.269.

===Questions===

1. What was the attitude towards the Huli Jing in Ancient China?

2. Can we characterize Kitsune as a positive or negative character?

3. Could Kumiho become human forever?

===Answers===

1.Initially, in ancient China, Huli Jing was perceived in a negative context. Only later, towards the Middle Ages, the attitude towards them changed and people began to perceive them as victims of circumstances.

2.In Japanese mythology, Kitsune was not unambiguously good or bad creatures.

3. In a later period, Kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever.
References ..................

==Chinese Characters - Gu Dongfang 顾东方 - 202070080635 - Interpretation 英语口译==
===Chinese Characters===

===Origin===

Chinese characters, also known as Hanzi (漢字) are one of the earliest forms of written language in the world, dating back approximately five thousand years.According to legend, Chinese characters were invented earlier by Cangjie (c. 2650 B.C.E.), a bureaucrat under the legendary emperor, Fu Hsi. The legend tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu (today Shanxi) when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic system called zì—Chinese characters. It was said that on the day the characters were born, Chinese heard the devil mourning, and saw crops falling like rain, as it marked the beginning of civilization, for good and for bad.（Boltz, William G. 2003）

===Evolution of Chinese characters===
[[File:Character_Yuu_Semi.jpg|160px|thumb|right|A Dinging Table]]
Chinese characters from the earliest Chinese hieroglyphs to today’s simple characters have undergone through a very long process of development which can be divided into two periods: ancient writing and modern writing. Associated with these two periods, Chinese characters had experienced several times of evolution into many different script forms. Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC) is the earliest systematic form of Chinese characters inscribed on animal bones and tortoise shells. Then Chinese characters evolved through the bronze script of the Zhou Dynasty (1066–256 century BC), seal scrip in the late Zhou Dynasty and Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), official script in the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) and regular script. Based on pictographs, Chinese characters gradually developed from the form of drawings to strokes and from complex to simple ones.(Wang Xianchun 2002)

===Ancient Chinese characters===

====Oracle bone script====

Oracle bone script (Chinese: 甲骨文, Pinyin: jiăgŭwén) is the inscription on animal bones and tortoise shells of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC). It was first excavated by the local farmers in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province and was sold as a kind of traditional Chinese medicine called “long” (dragon bones).

====Bronze script====

In the “Age of Bronze Ware” of China during the period of Shang and Zhou Dynasties, bronze ware was cast as a container, and most often as the sacrificial vessels to inscribe great events such as sacrifice, battle results, trade of slaves, etc. in a style just like the oracle bone script. In the Shang Dynasty, the inscriptions on bronze ware had very few characters, the form of which is extremely close to that of the oracle bone script. The size, complexity, formation of the Chinese characters are inconsistent. However, in the Zhou Dynasty, the characters in bronze inscriptions were simpler, and the size and formation were more fixed. The bronze inscriptions looked like drawings but had made significant progress from pictographic forms to block-shaped linear words we use today.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

====Seal script====
Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) begun to be used in Qin State. This script was usually written on bamboo slips and pieces of silk or inscribed on rocks and stones. Owing to the regular and symmetric structure, rounded and graceful lines, it is deemed to be the most beautiful style of characters in ancient China by calligraphers. It is still used for inscribing names on a seal today. There are two kinds of seal script: large or great seal script and lesser or small seal script.The large seal script (Chinese: 大篆, Pinyin: dàzhuàn) is a traditional reference to all types of Chinese writing systems used before the Qin Dynasty. However, due to the lack of research achievements and precision, scholars often avoid the large seal script, instead of using more specified terms to the examples of writing. The large seal script was widely used in many vassal states in the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC).After the Qin State conquered the other six states and established the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), Emperor Qinshihuang unified characters in order to strengthen his control. Based on the Large Seal script and rearranging the variant forms of characters in each state, the unified characters were decreed, called lesser or small seal script (Chinese: 小篆, Pinyin: xiăozhuàn) which was the official style of characters in Qin Dynasty used for all the documents of the government. It was the result of the first extensive simplification and standardization of Chinese characters. Compared with the oracle bone script and bronze script, in the lesser seal script, the forms of characters were simpler, the writing method was consistent, and the character pattern was more orderly.
The Ancient Writing Period, from the earliest known oracle bone script to the development of the seal script, lasted about 1,160 years. And the lesser seal script marked the end of the ancient Chinese characters.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) began to be used in Qin State.
and all of the above three points ignored the quote, please add them up.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Modern characters===
====Clerical script====

After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people.Because of its lengthened and curved lines, it took more time to write.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Regular script====

Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people generation after generation even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage.

Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people for generations even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage. （ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
===Formation of Chinese characters===

====Pictograms====

Contrary to popular belief, pictograms make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include 日 (rì) for "sun," 月 (yuè) for "moon," and 木 (mù) for "tree."

====Pictophonetic compounds====

Also called semantic-phonetic compounds, or phono-semantic compounds, this category represents the largest group of characters in modern Chinese. Characters of this sort are composed of two parts: a pictograph, which suggests the general meaning of the character, and a phonetic part, which is derived from a character pronounced in the same way as the word the new character represents.Examples are 河 (hé) river, 湖 (hú) lake, 流 (liú) stream, 冲 (chōng) riptide, 滑 (huá) slippery. All these characters have on the left a radical of three dots, which is a simplified pictograph for a water drop, indicating that the character has a semantic connection with water; the right-hand side in each case is a phonetic indicator.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
====Ideograph ====

Also called a simple indicative, simple ideograph, or ideogram, characters of this sort either add indicators to pictographs to make new meanings, or illustrate abstract concepts directly. For instance, while 刀 (dāo) is a pictogram for "knife," placing an indicator in the knife makes 刃 (rèn), an ideogram for "blade." Other common examples are 上 (shàng) for "up" and 下 (xià) for "down." This category is small, as most concepts can be represented by characters in other categories.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
====Logical aggregates====

Also translated as associative compounds, characters of this sort combine pictograms to symbolize an abstract concept. For instance, 木 (mu) is a pictogram of a tree, and putting two 木together makes 林 ,meaning forest. Combining 日 (rì) sun and 月(yuè) moon makes 明(míng) bright, which is traditionally interpreted as symbolizing the combination of sun and moon as the natural sources of light. quote missing--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Associate transformation====

Characters in this category originally didn't represent the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, 考 (kǎo) to verify and 老 (lǎo) old were once the same character, meaning "elderly person," but detached into two separate words. Characters of this category are rare, so in modern systems this group is often omitted or combined with others.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

Also called phonetic loan characters, this category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as 自 (zì), which has lost its original meaning of nose completely and exclusively means oneself, or 萬 (wan), which originally meant scorpion but is now used only in the sense of ten thousand.(Liu Youxin)

===Simplification of Chinese characters===

The use of traditional Chinese characters versus simplified Chinese characters varies greatly, and can depend on both the local customs and the medium. Before the official reform, character simplifications were not officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing of the writer.(简化字的昨天、今天和明天. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2010.)
===Terms and expressions===

1.Oracle Bone Inscriptions 甲骨文

2.Bronze Inscriptions 金文

3.Small seal characters 小篆

4.Official script 隶书

5.Regular script 楷书

6.Cursive writing 草书

7.Cang Jie 仓颉

8.Clerical script 楷书

9.Su Shi 苏轼

10. Wang Xizhi 王羲之

11.Ou Yangxun 欧阳询

12.Yan Zhenqing 颜真卿

13.Pictograms 象形

14. Pictophonetic compounds 指事

15.Ideograph 会意

16.Logical aggregates 形声

17.Associate transformation 转注

18.Borrowing 假借

===Question===
1.How many Chinese characters are there?

2.How many letters are in the Chinese alphabet?

3. How many formations of Chinese characters? What are they?

===Answers===
1. According to the latest statics, there are nearly 91251 Chinese characters recorded .

2. There are 26 letters in Chinese alphabet.

3. Six formations are included in Chinese characters system, and they are Pictograms
Pictophonetic compounds,Ideograph, Logical aggregates, Associate transformation,Borrowing

===References===

1.王显春. 汉字的起源[M]. 学林出版社, 2002.

2.刘又辛. "关于汉字发展史的几个问题(上)." 语文建设 12(1998):34-37.

3.Boltz, William G. 2003. The origin and the development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental series), v. 78. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. ISBN 0940490188

4.Chinese Characters, Chinese Culture and Chinese Mind . Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia, https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/12-Yuxin-Jia-Xuerui-Jia.pdf,2005.

==Handcraft - Chinese Knots - Guan Qinqing 管钦清 - Student No.20207080586 - 英语笔译==

===A.Chinese Knots===

====1.A Brief Introduction about Chinese Knots====

The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.It originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, to the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft.The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronzes of the Warring States Period.（Li Ku 2016，125）

The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization. It
originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, into the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft. The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronze of the Warring States Period.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now,Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decoration and aesthetics,which
earned the knot its name.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002,38）

The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now, Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decorations and aesthetics, which
earned the knot as its name.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The Classification of Chinese Knots====

There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）,Good Luck Knot（吉祥
结）,Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）,Sauvastika Knot（万字结）,Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）,Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）,Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）,Caisson Celling Knot（藻井
结）,Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.（Li Ku 2016，125）

There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot. They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）, Good Luck Knot（吉祥
结）, Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）, Sauvastika Knot（万字结）, Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）, Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）, Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）, Caisson Celling Knot（藻井
结）, Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots,which are the Double Coin Knot,the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot.

Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots, which are the Double Coin Knot, the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1.The Double Coin Knot=====

Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture,politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views on coins are not limited on their prices but value, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. Money in China not only represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. Every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money".（ Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，40）

Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture, politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views on coins are not limited on their prices but values, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. Money in China not only represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. On every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money". --[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, for the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes "good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc. （Li Ku 2016，126）

Therefore, for the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes "good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.The Good Luck Knot=====

As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and is also one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.
And the knot shape is beautiful,varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.（Wu Hongfang 2004,120）

As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.
And the knot shape is beautiful, varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3.The Pan Chang Knot=====

Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people. Pan Chang (盘长） is a symbol of the origin of all things, and is one of the most important basic knots. It is
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，44）

Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people.As is a symbol of the origin of all things, Pan Chang (盘长）is one of the most important basic knots. It is
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The Knitting Method of Chinese Knots====

The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots.The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots ,so as to make a group of varied knots.（Xu Xing 2004,46）

The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots. The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots, so as to make a group of varied knots.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then determine its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art.（Xu Xing 2004,47）

The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art. --[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Knots====

Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of
rope and thread.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of
Dragons.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,44）

Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of
rope and thread. In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of
Dragons.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.

Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.Comparisons between Chinese Knots and Cross Necklaces====

=====5.1.Different Cultural Connotations=====

From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot generally have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace,however, is symbolic of
Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient
Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners.Therefore,such cross
ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,45）

From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace, however, is symbolic of Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners. Therefore,such cross ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====5.2.Different Shapes=====

Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have
different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.（Xu Xing 2004,47）

Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====6.References====

*Li Ku 李库. (2016). 符号学视角下的中国结解读 [The Analysis of Chinese Knots from the Perspective of Semiology ]. ''艺海'' Yi Hai (08) 125-126.

*Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 李立芳，孙建君. (2002). ''民间绳结'' [Folk Knots]. Wuhan: Hubei Fine Arts Publishing House 湖北美术出版社.

*Xu Xing 许星. (2004). 路论中国结 [On the Chinese Knots]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (02) 46-47.

*Wu Hongfang 邬红芳. (2004). 中国结的意象美学特征 [The Rhetorical-Beauty of Chinese Knots]. ''装饰'' Decoration (09) 120-121.

*Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian王眯珠,孙荪,曲洪建. (2014). 怀旧心理与创新意识对中国结的影响分析[The Analysis of the Impact on Chinese Knots from Reminiscence and Consciousness of Innovation ]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (11) 43-50.

===B. Terms and Expressions===

Double Coin Knot 双钱结

Good Luck Knot 吉祥结

Chinese Button Knot 纽扣结

Sauvastika Knot 万字结

Oxalis Knot 酢浆草结

Pan Chang Knot 盘长结

Round Brocade Knot 团锦结

Caisson Celling Knot 藻井结

Cross Knot 十字结

Ping Knot 平结

tie the knot 永结同心

luck money 压岁钱

the bishop's identity 主教职权

===C. Questions===

1. What is the Chinese knot?

2. Do you know the names of the main Chinese knots? What are they?

3. What do "绳" and "结" mean in Chinese culture?--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 13:04, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.

2.There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot,Good Luck Knot,Chinese Button Kno,Sauvastika Knot,Oxalis Knot,Pan Chang Knot,Round Brocade Knot,Caisson Celling Knot,Cross Knot and Ping Knot.

3.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of "knot", which means reunion and happiness.

==Literature, Chinese Mythology, Guirou, Barthelemy, Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies 201921080010==
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the right order of your title should be category, topic, name, student number

[[File:Chinese Mythology.jpg|thumb|right|Panku]]

===Introduction===

The Chinese’s life is full of mythological traditions such as, the creation of universe, science, literature, philosophy, dragons, tortoises, phoenixes, unicorns, birds, and flowering fruit trees etc. This myth is characterized by the interaction of the pros and cons, yin and yang, good and evil, light and dark, male and female, heaven and earth, strong and weak and so forth. Panku was an important figure in Chinese mythology, the first living being and the creator of universe in some versions of Chinese mythology.(Su Shuyang 2010, 2). In world mythology; every peoples have it own myths, different fairy tales, but there is some similarities in common.

===A. Panku Created the World===

In the beginning, the world didn’t exist; there wasn’t sky, earth, water, animals, birds, plants, human, in other word, the universe was empty. The force of universe was concentrated inside a mysterious egg. This egg, after growing many years, it becoming a big form of ball and finally give birth to Panku. Panku, who was deeply sleeping in peace in his eggshell for eighteen thousand years, finally awaken by the chaos of the exterior movement and try to calm down. Therefore, the sky and the earth were created. His body was well-formed with giant muscular and the size of his body was about ninety thousand li (about thirty thousand miles), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).

At that moment the sky and the earth was very close and Panku couldn’t fully stand on his limbs, then Panku pushed the sky with his two hands to farther away from the sky. As time was passing, the sky and earth become farther from each other and the size of Panku increasing within. The size of Panku became enormous, 90,000 "li" (45,000 kilometer) was the high distance between the sky and the earth, that is why today we talk about “ Nine- Layer Sky.” For many centuries Panku pushed the sky with all the forces of his body to avoid the chaos, hence, he cried for help but no one helped him because he was alone in the world. He struggled for ten thousand years until the sky and earth was completely separated into the forces of yin (dark) and yang (light), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).
Slowly, he became weaker and older, and then he felt down on the ground and his body became a mighty crash. Thus, his right eye became the moon and his left eye became the sun; his head and limbs became mountains; his blood vessels became seas and rivers, his flesh became fertile lands; his hair became trees, grass, flowers; his teeth and bones became treasures (gold, metals, silver, copper); his sweat and tear represent the rain; his voice represent thunder and lightning and his breath represent winds and clouds. Finally; he finished his work, Panku, the creator of the world was dead and left behind him a landscape.

===B. NuWa Created Human Beings===

[[File:Picture 2.jpg|thumb|right|Fushi and Nuwa]]

Nuwa, was created out of earth from Panku flesh, was a goddess in Chinese mythology or viewed as old grandmother with a body of snake and human face. She was the creator and ancestor of human beings who appeared in the world after Pangu’s death (Su Shuyang 2010, 5).

As she was the only human living beings in the world, by the passing time, she felt lonely and decided to create human to her image in order to feel more comfortable to her world. Thus, she was seated down thinking about her new project of creating human beings and finally she got an idea. Then she created human beings by kneading mud with human forms and then these “mud figures” became alive. They started walking, speaking, sing, dancing, laughing and endowed with a human beings capacity (Su Shuyang 2010, 5, 6). Nuwa was very happy with her news creatures who surrounding him by crying our Mum. Then, she continued to create days and nights during a long period until she got tired. Hence, they were spread out everywhere; on the mountains, on the hills, near the rivers, on the straight spaces etc.

During a long period of years, Nuwa and her creatures were living together without any particular distinction about man and woman and any marriage. As time was passing; people were getting old and dying one after other, so, Nuwa started to worry about her offspring, what the world will be after all the men would have died. Nuwa then divided men and women and taught them marriage and how to reproduce between couples in order the lineage of mankind will never end. She gave her best wishes and advises to human beings, and since then, people continue to marry and give birth.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:09, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the source is missing

===C. Fushi Taught the People===

In Chinese mythology, it is generally said that the rulers were half-gods and half humans and they could change their shapes of state, either in animal or in human being. According to Chinese myths; the rulers didn’t die, when their time on the earth expired they ascended to the heavens to have a rest. Fushi was the first who taught to people how to survival on the earth such as: hunting, using fire, writing etc. (Irene Dea Collier,2001, 33). In some stories Fushi was the husband of Nuwa, whereas in some other it wasn’t. Anyway they are an important figures of Chinese civilization .

Fushi noticed that the new world (people) couldn’t support to the difficulties of the life and decided to help them thanks to his supernatural powers. He taught them how to make a fish net by twisting plants fibers and form ropes. With these ropes, he wove a fish net to fish fishes in water and feed people, and with these ropes also people could across mountain peaks to search food. Then, before people were eating raw meat or fish but Fushi showed them how to use fire by twirling two willow sticks together. Moreover, Fushi taught them many things including agriculture, breeding, security, music, healing and many else. As time was passing; Fushi getting old, and he knew that he could not live for ever , then he decided to create a system of writing "trigrams", in order people can learn and remember about his teachings for better life. He designed some kind of marks onto turtle shells, bamboo sticks and animal bones which became later words and numbers (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35, 36). This "trigrams" was also a mean to interpret future and consult oracle about the right ways to follow.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:24, 20 December 2020 (UTC)to write the in the way of (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35-36),that's better.

Finally, Fushi gave his last gift (music) in order people can live in harmony and peace after him. So, Fushi taught them how to make musical instrument and use it, a "pipa" (lute), (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 39).That is why, music has a great importance in Chinese history. Each time we play music, it reminds us to Fushi great teachings. Fushi’s time took end on the earth and finally he ascended to heavens hoping that his disciples (humans) live in peace.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the source is missing.

===D. Water War===

Territorial conquest or extension of a territory was a preoccupation of each ruler since the beginning of the world and still now is one of the sources of conflicts in the world. So, Gong, god of water fought against Zurong, god of fire to extend his territory. Historically, both have terrible tempers and described as a very big giants with different shapes, Gong shown with a snake’s body and a human face with red hair. Meanwhile Zurong shown with a massive human body with broad shoulders, red skin, and a red beard (Irene Dea Collier 2001,44).

Gong poked the earth with bouts of rain and floods which caused damages included on people, houses, animals, trees and many others living beings. People and others gods asked him to stop destroying but Gong remained pitiless and severe to their inquiries. Zurong, god of fire who ruled the earth in peace before Gong, finally intervened to stop him. So Zurong challenged Gong to regain the control of the earth. Firstly, they started to wrestle on the sky for many days, as both of them were using their supernatural powers, the sky shook with thunder, and lightning flashed across the sky. Then, they got down in the earth to continue fighting but fortunately Gong and his army were defeated and all the people and gods rejoiced Gong’s defeat. Since then, the world is full of conflicts and insecurities (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48, 49).--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:22, 20 December 2020 (UTC)to write the in the way of (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48-49),that's better.

In summary, like many mythologies, Chinese mythology has been recorded in oral form in literature from various regional and cultural traditions. China is the home of many mythological traditions which involves the creation of world, gods, deities, supernatural powers, culture, people, houses, cooking writing, ancestors etc.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the source is missing.

===E. Terms and Expressions===

Chinese Mythology 中国神话

Panku 盤古

Yin/Yang 陰陽 / 阴阳

Nuwa 女媧

Fushi 伏羲

Water War 水战

===F. Questions===

1. Why an egg a good symbol for the beginning of the world?

2. Why Nuwa decided to create human beings?

3. What did Fushi taught to people?

4. What was the cause of Gong and Zurong’s war and who won?

===G. Answers===

1. Because egg is the symbol of life and many creatures are born from the eggs, even its physical form is round like the world and it contains necessary elements to create a life.

2. Firstly, for companionship and secondly to guarantee her offspring by teaching them the importance of marriage and how to feed and raise their children. She also wanted to humans to live independently without help of god.

3. He taught to people how to live conveniently such as: fishing, how to make fire, cooking food and meat with fire, oracle consulting, and how to make and use lute.

4. Gong wanted to extend his territory which resulted to water damage and Zurong intervened and defeated him by wrestling.

===References===

1. Su Shuyang. (2010).''CHINA: Insight Traditions and Culture''.(Youth Edition). DOLPHIN BOOKS China International Publishing Group.

2. Irene Dea Collier. (2001). "Chinese Mythology". Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data.

3. https://pic.17qq.com/uploads/ijbphegbibz.jpeg

4. https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Pangu-lifting-heaven-picture.jpg--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 13:08, 15 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 06:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the way of reference-listing is not standard.

==Gods and Immortals - Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587 英语笔译==

===Chinese gods and immortals===

====Chinese mythology system====

Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, p. 71 )

Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or literature records, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, 71 )--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, p.4)

Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, 4)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, pp. 34-40)

The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of human or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, 34-40)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, pp. 27-28)

Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, 27-28)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, p37)

At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, 37)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān====

Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)

Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)

There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Eight immortals====

The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 40-45)

The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang, 1987 40-45)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (呂洞賓), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (張果老), Lan Caihe (藍采和), Li Tieguai (李鐵拐), Zhongli Quan (鍾離權), Han Xiangzi (韓湘子), Cao Guojiu (曹國舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50)

The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (吕洞宾), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (张果老), Lan Caihe (蓝采和), Li Tieguai (李铁拐), Zhongli Quan (钟离权), Han Xiangzi (韩湘子), Cao
Guojiu (曹国舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙過海，各顯神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)

The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙过海，各显神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

immortals 仙

mythology 神话，神话学

cosmology 宇宙论，宇宙观

monolithic 整体（式）的

the Battle of Zhuolu 涿鹿之战

pantheistic 泛神论的

polytheistic 多神论的

Three Pure Ones 三清

anthropomorphic 人格化的

tutelary 守护神

deity 神

Buddha 佛

Shakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Amitabha 阿弥陀佛

Amitāyus 无量寿佛

celestial 天的

Bodhisattva 菩萨

Pure Land 极乐世界

vessels 法器

Covert Eight Immortals 暗八仙

Taoist 道家的，道士

===Questions===

1. What are the topics of the Ancient mythology?

2. What are the differences among shén, dì and xiān?

3. What do the Eight immortals represent respectively?

===Answers===
1.The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths，which can be divided into four categories--the creation myths, myths of heroes, myths about Tribal war, and myths about human and nature.

2. shén and dì corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". The latter term 仙 xiān , refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".

3.Lü Dongbin, He Xiangu, Zhang Guolao, Lan Caihe, Li Tieguai, Zhongli Quan, Han Xiangzi and Cao Guojiu are representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble respectively.

===References===

[1]Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng (2014). Marxism and Religion. Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.

[2]Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

[3]Bai Yang. Chinese Huamn History. Time Literature & Art Press, 1987.

[4]Olson, Stuart Alve (2002). Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun. Bear & Company.

[5]Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism

[6]Hu Yanan. From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty [D].Harbin Normal University,2020.

[7]Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality. Sussex Academic Press.

[8]Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press,1987.

[9]Little, Stephen (2000). Taoism and the Arts of China. The Art Institute of Chicago.

[1]Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng. (2014). ''Marxism and Religion.'' Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.

[2]Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). ''Handbook of Chinese Mythology''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

[3]Bai Yang. (1987). ''Chinese Huamn History''. Time Literature & Art Press.

[4]Olson, Stuart Alve. (2002). ''Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun''. Bear & Company.

[5]Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism

[6]Hu Yanan.(2020). ''From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty'' [D].Harbin Normal University.

[7]Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). ''An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality''. Sussex Academic Press.

[8]Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. (1987). ''A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals''. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press.

[9]Little, Stephen (2000). ''Taoism and the Arts of China.'' The Art Institute of Chicago.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588 MTI==
[suggestion:Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588, here, your major is missing.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Classical Prose Movement of late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty===

====Introduction====

“The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty in China, also known as the Classical Prose Movement, is a movement with the style reform as its surface and Confucianism Renaissance as its depth.” (Li Shufang 2003, 1-3) The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty. This movement took clarity and precision as priorities, and it stood against the florid pianwen or parallel prose style that had been popular starting from the Han Dynasty. Parallel prose had a rigid structure and was criticized for being overly ornate at the expense of content. Therefore, Han Yu, together with Liu Zongyuan, launched this movement to make a difference so that they can revive Confucianism and promote their political thoughts. This movement had a tendency to follow the spirit of pre-Qin prose rather than to imitate it directly. People used elements of colloquial language to make their writings more direct. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 1)
[suggestion:……and Confucianism Renaissance as its deep. Here, "deep" may be replaced by "depth".
The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, (Here, you can add a word "and")it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Development====

The Classical Prose Movement went through three stages. The first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan who were not only writers but also theorists, forming the basis of the movement. Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement and were keen to teach young people so that the movement could achieve further development and then revive the Confucianism. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-18)
[suggestion:(Here, "Both" can be replaced by "They both".)Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. Furthermore, the government only allowed people to use pianwen for official use, so those who want to be officials had to learn that style. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 59-61)
[suggestion:However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. (Here, this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may change the word "writing" into "wrote".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

After that, Ouyang Xiu once again advocated the classical prose in the Song Dynasty. As many people were dissatisfied with the florid piantiwen style, the Classical Prose Movement reached another peak during that period. This movement is consequently also called the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty. (Song Juan 2005, 62-65)

====Representatives====

'''1.Han Yu'''

Han Yu (768–824), courtesy name Tuizhi, is also known for his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. He was born in present-day Mengzhou, Henan, he was a Chinese prose writer, poet, and philosopher who influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism. Due to his influence on the Chinese literary tradition, he is described as “Comparable in stature to Dante, Shakespeare or Goethe”. Meanwhile, he is often considered to be among China’s finest prose writers. Ming Dynasty scholar Mao Kun ranked him first in the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song"，and Su Shi, another Chinese poet, once praised that “His prose reversed the literary decline of eight dynasties”. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-17)
[suggestion:Han Yu (768 – Here, you may delete the space.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC) 824), courtesy name Tuizhi, also known his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. (And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Han Yu wrote a large volume of works, which includes over 700 poems and nearly 400 proses. He is especially famous for his ''On Teachers'', which says “A teacher is one who passes on the truth, imparts knowledge and solves puzzles”. This persuasive prose is short but well structured, and it has a strong appeal to people, which also has a positive impact on youth education. (Fan Aiju, Li Wei 2014, 124-125)

'''2.Liu Zongyuan'''

Liu Zongyuan (773–819), courtesy name Zihou, is also known by his art names He Dong Xian Sheng or Liu He Dong, was a Chinese litterateur, philosopher, politician and poet who lived during the Tang Dynasty. And Liu was born in present-day Yongji, Shanxi. Along with Han Yu, they were called Han Liu. Besides that, he has been regarded as one of the “Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song”, which also includes Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu. Liu's best-known travel pieces are the ''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou''. And one of his most famous poems is "Jiangxue". (Yang Shengli 2020, 42-44)
[suggestion:(773 – Here, you may delete the space. 819);(And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.Ouyang Xiu'''

Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), courtesy name Yong Shu, is also known by his art names Zuiweng and Liu Yi Jushi. He was a Chinese essayist, historian, poet, calligrapher and even a politician of the Song Dynasty. Being a much-celebrated writer, both among his contemporaries and in subsequent centuries. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56)
[suggestion:(1007 – Here, you may delete the space. 1072);(And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Xiu was in charge of the writing of the ''New Book of Tang'', and he also wrote the ''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' independently, the only book in the Twenty-Four Histories to have been written in private by a single author. As a poet, he was a noted writer of both the shi and ci genres. But it was his prose writings like ''Zuiweng Tingji'' that won him the greatest acclaim. The poem's most well-known line is: The Old Toper cares not for the wine, his interest lies in the landscape, an idiom still used in modern Chinese to describe someone with an ulterior motive. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56-57)

Except for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu, there were many other representatives of this movement. For example, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zeng Gong and Wang Anshi also made great contributions to the Classical Prose Movement. Considering their influences, they were also listed as Eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 82-83)
[suggestion:Except(Here, you may change "Except" into "Besides".) for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu,……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Masterworks====

Under the influence of the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty, there appeared a large volume of masterpieces, which have a far-reaching influence on later ages. Except for the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu, other works like ''Shang Zhongyong'' written by Wang Anshi, ''On Jia Yi'' and ''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' by Su Shi, were also considered the representative works of this movement. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 73-78)
[suggestion:Except for(Here, you may change "Except for" into "Besides".) the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu,……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Influence====

The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty is a milestone during the development of Chinese ancient prose, it has a profound influence on the later schools of literature like Tang-Song School in the Ming Dynasty and Tong Cheng school in the Qing Dynasty. Besides that, it also helped to lay a solid foundation of prose in China, and acted as a fine example for later scholars. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 85-86)

====Terms and Expressions====

The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty 唐宋八大家

Classical Prose Movement 古文运动

''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou'' 《永州八记》

''On Teachers'' 《师说》

''New Book of Tang'' 《新唐书》

''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' 《新五代史》

''Zuiweng Tingji'' 《醉翁亭记》

''Shang Zhongyong'' 《伤仲永》

''On Jia Yi'' 《贾谊论》

''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' 《赤壁赋》

====Questions====

1. Who were the first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement?

2. What does the Classical Prose Movement mean?

3. What's political and religious purposes of the Classical Prose Movement?

====Answers====

1. The first promoters of this movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.

2. The Classical Prose Movement refers to the cultural reform movement which promotes Gu Wen and opposes pianwen in late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty.

3. The reason why Confucious scholars promoted this movement is that they wanted to combat the influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the emperors. Besides that, this movement is also an effective tool to expose the reality of corruption and weakness in the central government.
[suggestion: The reason what…….(Here, you may change "what" into "why".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

Fan Aiju, Li Wei 范爱菊, 李伟. (2014). 唐代文豪韩愈的文学造诣 [The literary achievements of Han Yu in the Tang Dynasty] 兰台世界 ''Lantai World'' (21) 124-125.

Li Shufang. (2003). 古文运动的社会背景 [The Social Background of Sport of Ancient Chinese Prose]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学 (12) 1-3.

Nie Yongqing 聂永清. (2007). 重读欧阳修 [Rethinking of Ouyang Xiu] 当代江西 ''Dang Dai Jiangxi'' (02) 56-57.

Qian Dongfu 钱东父. (1979). 唐宋古文运动 [''The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty''] Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Song Juan 宋娟. (2005). 古文运动、科举与“唐宋八大家” [Movement of the Ancient Chinese Prose, Imperial Examination and “Eight Great Writers in Tang and Song Dynasty”]. Mudanjiang: Mudanjiang Normal University 牡丹江师范学院 (02) 62-65.

Yang Shengli 杨胜利. (2020). “河东先生”柳宗元 [Liu Zongyuan:He Dong Xian Sheng]. 支部建设 Zhi Bu Jian She (08) 42-44.

Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (1996). 唐宋八大家论 [Talking of Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song]. Shanghai: Zhong Hua Book Company 中华书局 (06) 35-38.

==The tradition of Red Envelope and Lucky Money - HA, THI THU HANG - 201921080008 - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets-design.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Red Enverlop]]

===The Chinese Red Envelope and Lucky Money Tradition===

In Chinese and other East and Southeast Asian societies, Red Envelopes, also called Red Packets, Lucky Money, or ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ) in Chinese, ''Li shi'' / ''Lìxì'' in Vietnamese are popular monetary gift given during holidays or special occasions or festivals such as weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc in China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and some other Asian countries, especially widely seen during the Lunar New Year Festival. During the Lunar New Year, the adult, parents and grandparents gift with the red envelops for kids, which have money stuffed into. It is a traditional way to wish good luck and share blessings.

The Lucky Money tradition began in the Han Dynasty. Rather than real money, they were small collectibles in the form of coins to ward off evil spirits. Auspicious phrases and symbols were engraved onto the surface. "worldwide peace" ( 天下太平 / ''Tiān xià tài píng''), “longevity and fortune” ( 千秋万岁 / ''Qiān qiū wàn suì''), dragons and phoenixes were common.

These coins were tied together with red string. The practice transitioned to be wrapped in Red Paper and now, put into Red Envelopes.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Legend====

In China, during the Qin Dynasty, the elderly would thread coins with a red string. There was a kind of little demon called ''Sui'' ( 祟 ) in ancient times. Whenever it is on New Year's Eve, it will appear quietly, touching the head of a sleeping child. The child who was being touched will be scared and cry, and also will have a headache. Therefore, in order to prevent against the sui, people in the past did not dare to sleep on New Year's Eve, and all the lights were called ''Shou Sui'' ( 守祟 ).

One tale of the folklore, once upon a time, there was a couple who were over 50 years old had just given birth to a little boy. In that Lunar New Year, 8 fairies visited their house and knew that there would be a monster coming to hurt him. To protect the baby, the 8 faires transformed into 8 coins which were then wrapped in red cloth and laid beside the boy when he was sleeping. Thanks to these coins, which were the fairies, the boy was unharmed by the monster. The old couple was so thankful and gradually everyone in the village knew about the stories. Since then, when Lunar New Year comes, people will give children "red paper wrapped copper money" with a belief that the money will protect children from being harmed.

There are also other legends about this custom related to the son of Yang Guifei of the Tang Dynasty - China and the Qin Dynasty. But in general, the New Year's blessing of the lucky money all originates with the meaning of giving happy money to children, wishing them to grow up their money so they can pass the new age with good things and luck.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Tradition====

The Chinese custom of Lucky Money is called ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ). Chinese people really like red, so the Lucky Money is always red, symbolizing luck and happiness. The Red Envelope is called ''Yāsuìqián'' ( 压岁钱 ), which means "suppressing ghosts money". Those who receive a Red Envelope are wished another safe and pea. Sending Red Envelopes is a way to send good wishes another safe and peaceful year, and luck (as well as money). The amount of money in the Chinese Lucky Money must avoid the number 4 ( 四 / ''si'') and be sealed - that means no 4, 40, or 400 amounts - as the pronunciation of four in Chinese sounds like the word for death ( 死/ ''si''). However, amounts including the number 8 ( 八 / ''ba'') will bring good luck and prosperity ( 发财 / ''fa'').

There are rules on how to properly receive an Envelope. Traditionally, children would kneel to receive their ''Hóngbāo'' from older family members, and this is still practiced in some areas of China. Red Envelopes are also always given and received with both hands, and should never be opened immediately and in the presence of the present-giver. After receiving the Lucky Money, the children have to put it all under the pillow after about a week to open it. The meaning of this is for the Lucky Money to protect the kids from the bad things that can happen in the new year. This is also the source of the traditional Chinese Lucky Money.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Alipay and WeChat Red Envelope'''

[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets.jpg|200px|thumb|Right|Red Envelope - How much to give who - [[https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]]]]

Moving on from the traditional Red Envelope, in the 21st century, many people exchange digital Red Envelopes instead of the traditional paper ones. These are virtual packets of very real cash, transferred directly to friends' and family's smartphones. Users can even send digital ''Hóngbāo'' to their favorite celebrities using apps such as Alipay, WeChat and the Weibo Red Envelope. WeChat Red Packet is an online money transfer with a colorful message via WeChat (a messaging Chinese app). In recent years, it has become popular among young people to send "Red Envelopes" via WeChat as a greeting. It has become a new way to greet friends or relatives during the Chinese New Year period.

While the tradition centers on children, Red Envelopes are given to friends, family, colleagues and many other relatives - and different amounts of money are customary for each relation. For example, parents and grandparents get the most, but employees and even casual acquaintances can expect a Red Envelope.

====Outside of China====

The similar customs have been adopted throughout Southeast Asia and many other countries with sizable populations of Chinese descent. Each country has different ways of Lucky Money and changes over time, but the basic custom of Lucky Money is to want to send wishes of peace to all relatives and friends in the New Year.

In Vietnam, Lucky Money is called ''Lì xì/Tiền mừng tuổi'' and very typical. On the first day of the Lunar New Year - one of the great holidays of the year, both adults and babies wear new clothes to celebrate the New Year relative. After that, the adults will give Lucky Money to the children with the message of good luck, good care and good study. Today, the tradition of Lucky Money in Vietnam is also expanded in the direction that children give Lucky Money to celebrate the age of grandparents and parents. This is a human custom that is increasingly promoted by the Vietnamese people.

In Japan, Lucky Money is called ''Otoshidama''. Unlike other countries, the amount of Japanese Lucky Money depends on the child's age, the relationship of the family. ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes are usually white in color, not as common in red as other countries. The special thing about the Japanese Red Envelopes is that the envelopes are always sealed, symbolizing the privacy, not packaging. Moreover, the name of the person receiving the Lucky Money will be written on the Red Envelope to show respect for the recipient. The message of each ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes is a wish for a warm, peaceful and lucky New Year.

In Korea, Lucky Money is called ''Sabae''. On the New Year's day, children in traditionally dressed families perform the ritual of bowing to their seniors to show gratitude for birth and nurturing. After this ceremony, the children will receive Lucky Money together with wishes for health and peace in the New Year. The Lucky Money in Korea is more diverse than other countries, not only with money but also gold, pearls, gems, etc.

The Lucky Money tradition has also crossed cultural and religious boundaries, and ''Green Envelope-giving'' has even become a practice during the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Fitr across Southeast Asia. It is also widely practiced by the Chinese and Southeast Asian diaspora across the world.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Lucky Money 利市/ Lì shì

Red Envelope 红包/ Hóngbāo

Worldwide Peace 天下太平/ Tiān xià tài píng

Longevity and Fortune 千秋万岁/ Qiān qiū wàn suì

Suppressing Ghosts Money/ Suppressing Sui Money 压岁钱/ Yā suì qián

Sui 祟

Shou Sui 守祟

===Questions===

1. Do you know the origin of giving Lunar New Year's Lucky Money to children?

2. Is the Lucky Money tradition exist in other countries than China?

3. What are the rules on giving-receiving Red Envelopes?

4. On what occasions people giving-receiving Red Envelopes?

5. Do you ever receive a Red Envelope? On what occasion?

===Answers===

1. It began in the Han Dynasty and to protect children from being harmed.

2. Yes. It is very polupar in Vietnam (''Lìxì''), Japan (''Otoshidama''), Korea (''Sabae''), and some other Southeast Asian countries.

3. The giving amount of money must avoid the number 4 that sounds like the word of death in Chinese. The children, after receiving the Red Envelope, do not open it immediatedly and in the presence of the present-giver, but have to put it under the pillow after about a week to open it.

4. Red Envelopes are most commonly associated with New Year, but they also turn up as part of many other occasions as a way of sharing good luck and blessings, like births, weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc.

5. Yes. Red Envelope, or Lucky Money, or ''Lìxì'' is very typical in the Lunar New Year in my country Vietnam.

===References===

Red Envelope[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_envelope]

Fefe Ho - Red Pockets[https://chinesenewyear.net/red-pockets/]

Cindy Tang - Red Envelopes/Packets (Hongbao) - Amount, Symbols and How to Give [https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]

Chinese Red Envelope [https://www.travelchinaguide.com/essential/holidays/new-year/red-envelope.htm]--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Calendar, The 24 Solar Terms - He Changqi 何长琦 student No. and 专业 are missing --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)==

==='''The Twenty-four Solar Terms'''===
==='''The Twenty-four Solar Terms'''===[maybe this should be deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===1. The orgin and development of the twenty-four solar terms===
===1. The Orgin and Development of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

“The twenty-four solar terms” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）

"The 24 solar terms" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）[suggestion:the quotation mark in English and in Chinese should be distinguished.In Chinese, it is “”;in English, it is ""]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: winter solstice, summer solstice, spring equinox and autumn equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature, during the Warring States period, the complete twenty-four solar terms were basically formed, and during the Qin and Han dynasties, the complete twenty-four solar terms system was perfected and formed into today's complete twenty-four solar terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）

By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: winter solstice, summer solstice, spring equinox and autumn equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature in the Warring States period, the complete 24 solar terms were basically formed. During the Qin and Han dynasties, a complete system was perfected and formed into today's complete twenty-four solar terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）[suggestion:the last sentence is too long to read.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:42, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The definition and classification of the 24 solar terms===
===2. The Definition and Classification of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

“The twenty-four solar term” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)

"The 24 solar term" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[suggestion:it will be better if you use Arabic numerals or its English version uniformly in the whole passage; please pay attention to the difference of quotation mark in Chinese and English.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the meddle part of a month is called qi (气). ( Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it. ) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)

A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the middle part of a month is called qi (气). (Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it.) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[maybe there is a wrong word "meddle", it should be "middle" .]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the four solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)

The 8 solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the 4 solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[suggestion:it will be better if a uniform numeral format is used.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Folklore of the 24 solar terms===
===3.Folklore of the 24 Solar Terms===[the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three areas: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.((Ding Yiming. Chang He 2020)) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the twenty-four solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc.

The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three aspects: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the 24 solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc. [suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of Start of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of Start of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of Start of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan. Zou Yating 2020)

These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of the Begining of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of the Begining of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of the Begining of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan, Zou Yating 2020)[suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.Importance and values of of the 24 solar terms===
===4.Importance and Values of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:it will be better if the first letters are capitalized; the "of" should be deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.1 Importance in ancient times===
====4.1 Importance in Ancient Times====[the subtitle should add a mark as "="]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people.

The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people.[suggestion:quotation is missing.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is also the most basic function and value of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humans according to natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)

Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is the most basic function of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humanity in accordance with natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of the people in ancient times. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were not just a time system, but a much more colourful connotation of life, and an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of ancient people. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were more than a time system, they were also a connotation of life, an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立), that is, the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter , have always been important festivals in history. At the time of these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival, which is also known as China's four traditional festivals, along with Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立)-- the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter-- have always been important festivals in history. At these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival. Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and Tomb Sweeping Festival are known as China's four traditional festivals .(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 Values in modern society===
====4.2 Values in Modern Society====[suggestion:it will be better if the first letters are capitalized; the subtitle should add a mark as "="]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation.(Ding Yiming. Chang He 2020)

In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020)[suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It still has its practical values in modern society.Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system with a long history and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations, such as respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

It still has its practical values in modern society.Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations. Specifically, respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, showing filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and reflect the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019) [suggestion:maybe it will be better if "reflect" is deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Lastly, the 24 solar terms are not only a time system, but also a living tradition full of rich connotations, which is an important part of people's lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

===Terms and Expressions===

the Beginning of Spring 立春

Beginning of Autumn 立秋

Rain Water 雨水

End of Heat 处暑

Insects Awakening 惊蛰

White Dew 白露

Spring Equinox 春分

Autumnal Equinox 秋分

Fresh Green 清明

Cold Dew 寒露

Grain Rain 谷雨

First Frost 霜降

Beginning of Summer 立夏

Beginning of Winter 立冬

Lesser Fullness 小满

Light Snow 小雪

Grain in Ear 芒种

Heavy Snow 大雪

Summer Solstice 夏至

Winter Solstice 冬至

Lesser Heat 大暑

Lesser Cold 小寒

Greater Heat 立春

Greater Cold 大寒

===Questions===

1.1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?
1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Where does the 24 solar terms originate from?

3. What are the eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes？

4.When was the 24 solar terms included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List?

5.What are the food customs in the Beginning of Spring?

6.Do you konw any other folklore of the 24 solar terms?

===Answers===

1.Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox.

2.It originated in the Yellow River valley.

3.Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox, Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice

4.In 2016.

5.People eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots.

6.It is said that people should eat dumplings on the Start of Winter. There is a story about the birth of dumplings. According to legend, in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, the "Sage of Medicine", invented the "jiaozi" to treat frostbite patients with frostbitten ears. He cooked mutton, hot peppers and herbs to dispel the cold and warm up the body. He wrapped these ingredients into a dough skin and made them into an ear shape. Since then, people have learned to make the food which became known as "dumpling" or jiaozi. Today there is still a saying that goes "Eat dumplings on Start of Winter Day, or your ears will be frostbitten."

===References===

Yuan Jix. 袁济喜. (2016). "中华思想文化术语(3)”[Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture]. 外语教学与研究出版社”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Belarusian Literature and Arts Press] (Yuan Jix 2016:)

Wang Jiahua. 王加华.（2019.9.20）"China Social Science Network" http://www.cssn.cn/zx/bwyc/201909/t20190920_4974497_1.shtml

Ding Yiming. Chang He. 丁一鸣. 常河（2020.11.17）"Chinanews" http://www.chinanews.com/cul/2020/11-17/9340057.shtml

He Yannan. Zou Yating. 贺亚楠. 邹雅婷. (2020.2.4) “China Daily” https://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/04/WS5e3901a9a3107bb6b579d18d.html

==Literature, Yue Fu - Hu Baihui 胡百辉 202070080590 English Translation==

===Collection of Yue Fu Poetry《乐府诗集》===

====Introduction====

'''1.Brief introduction'''

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name.(Wu Ting 2007, 20)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre-Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name. (Wu Ting 2007, 20)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.About the author'''

Guo Maoqian (1041-1099) was born in Xucheng, Yunzhou, Song Dynasty. He is the grandson of Guo Quan, and the son of Guo Yuanming. Song Shenzong Yuanfeng seven years (1084), Cao joined the army in Henan Province. He wrote a hundred volumes of ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'', which was handed down from generation to generation. (Wu Ting 2007, 22)

'''3.Content introduction'''

It divides Yuefu Poems into 12 categories, including suburban Temple songs, Yan shooting songs, drum songs, horizontal blowing songs, Xianghe songs, etc. In these different kinds of music, the songs of Jiaomiao and yanshe belong to the movements used by the imperial court, and their ideological content and artistic skills are less desirable. There are also some works with poor artistic value. But generally speaking, most of the poems it collects are excellent folk songs and poems written by scholars with old Yuefu titles. In the existing poetry collection, "Yuefu Poetry Collection" is an important book with the most complete collection of all kinds of Yuefu Poetry in the past dynasties. (Wu Ting 2007, 30)

====Masterpieces====

'''1.''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'''''

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife, but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for love freedom and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for free love and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.''Mulan Poetry'''''

''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man, joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality, It has strong artistic appeal.(Wu Ting 2007, 41)

''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man and joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for a reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality. Therefore, it has strong artistic appeal. (Wu Ting 2007, 41)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Evaluation====

'''1.Contributions'''

The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)

The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of the Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105) --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literature history and music history.There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but narrative is attached to lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in the singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literary history and music history. There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but the narrative is attached to the lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.Shortcomings'''

There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' . For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as an ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)

There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''. For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Wu Ting 吴婷.(2007).乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究[D][A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].南昌:南昌大学 Nanchang:Nanchang University (12)20-41.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:06, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

Yu Yizhi 喻意志.(2002).乐府诗集成书研究[D][A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].上海:上海师范大学 Shanghai:Shanghai Normal University (10)105-107.

Wu Ting 吴婷. (2007). 乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究 [A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].Nanchang:Nanchang University 南昌大学 (12) 20-41.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Yu Yizhi 喻意志. (2002). 乐府诗集成书研究 [A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poetry'']. Shanghai: Shanghai Normal University 上海师范大学 (10)105-107.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''《乐府诗集》

Jiaomiao songs郊庙歌辞

Yanshe songs燕射歌辞

Guchui drum songs鼓吹曲辞

Hengchui songs横吹曲辞

Xianghe songs相和歌辞

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' 《孔雀东南飞》

''Mulan Poetry''《木兰辞》--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:24, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.When was Yuefu Poetry compiled？

2.Which institution did "Yuefu" belong to?

3.What are ''The Peacock Flies to Southeast''based on?--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:34, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.In Song Dynasty.

2.It belongs to the institution in charge of music.

3.It is based on a marriage tragedy.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:38, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisines, Eight Major Cuisines in China - Hu Jin 胡瑾 202070080591 英语笔译==

===Eight Major Cuisines of China===

====1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisine====
1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisines--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As early as the Shang and Zhou dynasties, China's food culture began to take shape. At that time, Tai Gongwang was the most representative. In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period under the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, the flavors of North and South dishes showed differences. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the southern cuisine and the northern cuisine formed their own systems. In the Southern Song Dynasty, sweet in south and salty in north was formed. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Shandong Cuisine, Sichuan Cuisine, Cantonese Cuisine, and Su Cuisine became the most influential local dishes at that time, and they were called the "four major cuisines." By the end of the Qing Dynasty, four new local cuisines, Zhejiang Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine, Hunan Cuisine, and Anhui Cuisine, were differentiated and formed, which together constituted the "eight major cuisines" of traditional Chinese cuisine. (Lv Xiaomin 2009, 64)

====2. The Classification of Chinese Cuisines====

China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavor. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted around. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)

China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavors. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1 Shandong Cuisine=====
Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)

Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Besides, Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2 Sichuan Cuisine=====
Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one
of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)

Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical and exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3 Guangdong Cuisine=====
Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables. Many vegetables originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)

Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables, which originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, just bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.4 Fujian Cuisine=====
Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct features are their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)

Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct feature is their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5 Jiangsu Cuisine=====
Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh and sweet and with delicate elegance. Jiangsu Cuisine is well known for its careful selection of ingredients, its meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)

Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh, sweet and delicate. Jiangsu Cuisine is well-known for its careful selection of ingredients, its methodology of meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.6 Zhejiang Cuisine=====
Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)

Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. And Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.7 Hunan Cuisine=====
Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessaries in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)

Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessities in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.8 Anhui Cuisine=====
Anhui Cuisine focuses much more attention on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking method are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)

Anhui Cuisine focuses much more on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking methods are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3. A Comparison of Chinese-Western Diet Culture====

Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. There are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)

Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. So there are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China, but it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)

Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China. But it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)

However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to both their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are also differences in names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)

There are also differences in the names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo Meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

Bi Jiwan 毕继万. (1999). 跨文化非语言交际 [Cross-cultural Nonverbal Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 78-83.

Cai Hua 蔡华. (2009). 试论中西饮食文化的差异 [On the Differences between Chinese and Western Food Culture]. ''邵阳学院学报'' Journal of Shaoyang University 56-67.

Du Xuezeng 杜学增. (1999). 中英文化习俗比较 [Comparison of Chinese and English Cultural Customs]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 212-217.

Lv Xiaomi, Ding Xiao, Dai Yangyong 吕晓敏, 丁骁, 代养勇. (2008). 中国八大菜系的形成历程和背景 [The Formation Process and Background of Eight Major Cuisines in China ]. ''中国食物与营养'' Food and Nutrition in China (10) 62－64．

Shi Hongmei 史红梅. (2009). 地理教学中我国地域饮食文化差异研究 [Study on the Differences of Regional Diet Culture in Geography Teaching in China]. ''河北师范大学'' Hebei Normal University 34-68.

===Terms and Expressions===

pot-stewed fowl 卤味

stewing and simmering 炖，煨

prickly ash 花椒

fermented soybean 豆鼓

Braised Dongpo Pork 东坡肉

Buddha Jumps over the Wall 佛跳墙

Kung Pao Chicken 宫保鸡丁

Bean Sauce Tofu 麻婆豆腐

===Questions===
1. How many types of cuisines are there in china?

2. What’s differences between Chinese and western diets?

3. What is the origin of Dongpo Meat?

===Answers===
1. Eight

2. 1. The western cooking method is simpler than that in China. 2. Western diet pays attention to the nutrition while Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. 3. Western diet is a more rational diet. 4. Westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. 5. Westerners specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. 6. There are also differences in names of dishes.

3. It is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty.

== Paper Cutting - Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪 202070080636 2020英语口译 Interpreting ==

Chinese Paper Cutting 剪纸

===Introduction===

With a long history, papercutting could be dated back to 2000 years ago in China according to the archaeological records. It originated in ancient ancestor worship activities which people pray for their ancestor'''(s)''' and god. Later, with the widespread papercutting technique'''(s)''' and people’s growing love for it, it gradually served as the decorations for the doors, walls, mirrors, lanterns and so on. Nowadays, papercutting has already become an integral part of Chinese traditional culture and serves as a window of the Chinese folk culture. (Jiao 2016: 3)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===History===

The skill of cutting and carving appeared way before the invention of paper, and a number of materials, from the bark, leaves and animal skin, to later silk fabrics, as well as cloth, silk, etc., were cut into certain shapes to decorate, which lay '''(change to laid)''' a solid foundation for the art of papercutting. (Li & Zhang 2015: 7)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As the paper is not easy to preserve, few of the paper works could survive to the modern times. “The earliest such work surviving are five examples dating from the Northern Dynasties period (386-581), unearthed in Turfan（吐鲁番）, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.” (Folk Handicrafts)

In the'''(what)''' dynasty the custom of papercutting began to be popular, and the handicraft man cut paper to different shapes, and each owns its name. Namely, the shape of square was named “Fangsheng”, the flower shape was called “Huasheng”, the people('''add - )''' shaped “rensheng”. Two pieces of “Huasheng”, which were the remains in the Tang Dynasty, are preserved now in Shōsō-in(正仓院) in Japan. (Li & Zhang 2015: 7-8)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

By the Song Dynasty, with the prosperous development of economy and culture, in addition to daily decoration, papercutting was used for crafts such as porcelain and blue calico. (蓝印花布) (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

The art of papercutting became mature in Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. There emerged well designed papercutting works in the Yuan dynasty, and collectors began to collect paper-cutting works as artwork. By the Ming Dynasty, the application of paper-cutting became even wider, with clip gauze lantern (夹纱灯) as an representative. It is a lantern with papercutting clipped in, candlelight reflecting the pattern. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

Since its birth, the art of papercutting has never been interrupted.In its long history, it evolved in art and pottery, printing, dyeing and other art intertwined, being an indispensable part of people’s life. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

===Five Regions===

The distribution area of Chinese folk paper-cutting, according to the historical changes, geography, ecological environment changes, cultural development differences and paper-cutting itself in the aesthetic '''(s)''', style of mutual influence and so on, for a comprehensive consideration, can be divided into five regions. (Wang 2006:106)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Northeast Changbai Mountains area: It mainly covers Changbai Mountain area in Heilongjiang province, Liaoning province. As the birthplace of the nation of Man, the papercutting here herited the culture and customs of Man. (Wang 2006:106)

Yellow river basin area: With the north of Shaanxi '''(maybe Shanxi)''' papercutting as the center, it is simple but more expressive because of its rough lines and designs. (Wang 2006:106)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Yangtze River basin area: It covers papercutting in Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan and Jiangsu provinces. Influenced by folk farming culture and the Confucian culture in the Han dynasty, papercutting in this region is in the rough in shape but bears a sense of delicacy. (Wang 2006:106)

The southeastern coastal area: It is highlighted by the papercutting of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. This region, more affluent. Paper-cutting creation, especially in Zhejiang Jinhua, Guangdong Foshan as the representative, in the history of cultural development, the vein is also more distinct, its aesthetic interest, tends to be elegant and common appreciation(appreciation maybe change to appreciated). (Wang 2006:106)

Southwestern minority areas: It is characterized by papercutting in the minorities in Yunan and Guizhou province'''(s)'''. Many paper cuttings are combined with embroidery patterns. The religious beliefs of this region obviously involved in the art of papercutting. (Wang 2006:107)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Techniques===

There are various ways to make papercutting works, include folding paper-cutting, smoked paper-cutting(熏样剪纸), color-collage paper-cutting, paper-cutting and tongcun paper-cutting , but the most common ones are mono-colored and dot-colored. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

Mono-colored papercutting refer'''(s)''' to '''(加papercutting)''' cut or curve with a single-colored paper, mostly in red. Since ancient times, the Chinese revered the red, whenever there are grand celebration ceremonies or festivals, red is the main color, featuring warmth, passion and also brightness and happiness. However, mono-colored papercutting is also available in black or other colors, which are used according to different circumstances and situations, among which white papercutting is mostly used as the base sample for embroidery. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Dyed papercutting also called dotted paper cuttings. The paper is mostly Xuan paper, a kind of thin white paper absorbs water easily. Twenty or thirty pieces of such paper are put into pile and the pattern is carved out with a knife. Then the mass of paper is dyed.After the dying process, the colors become rich and elegant, with endless changes and a strong local flavor. The dyed papercutting is mainly found in Hebei, Shanxi and Guangdong province, among which the dotted paper cuttings in Weixian, Hebei is very unique. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)
===Themes===

Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, birds and animals,'''(animals and birds和前面的birds and animals 重复了)''' twelve zodiac animals, '''(pavilions and pavilions这儿也重复啦)''' , totem worship(图腾崇拜), religious belief. Its connection with the major festivals and traditional customs find its expression in every aspects of life.Papercutting is an essential folk activity in the villages. Traditionally, on the 23rd day of the twelfth lunar month, women "drop their hoes and pick up scissors to cut papers"; on the 28th, flowers are pasted on the windows. On this day, every family paste window decorations, new year’s pictures and Spring Festival couplets (春联) to create an lively environment for the new year. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is the rural working women who are the majority of creator'''s''' of the delicate papercutting. When they were five or six years old or seven or eight years old, they began to follow their mothers and grandmothers to learn paper-cutting. Mothers would pass on their treasured paper-cutting patterns to their daughters and daughters-in-law as family heirlooms. This is how China’s folk papercutting has been passed down from generation to generation. They are devoutly devoted to the papercutting that are rich in connotations such as prosperity, peace and good fortune, happiness, '''prosperity here重复啦''' health and longevity. It is the inheritance of this spirit that has enabled the art of paper-cutting to last for thousands of years. (Li & Zhang 2015: 9)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Wang Minbo 王敏伯. (2006) 中国民间剪纸史[The History of Chinese Folk Paper-cut Arts] 杭州: 中国美术学院出版社 Hangzhou: China Academy of Art Press.

Li Youyou & Zhang JIngjuan 李有有&张静娟. (2015) 剪纸 [paper-cut] 北京中国旅游出版社 Beijing: China Travel & Tourism Press.

Lu Zhongmin. (2002) Folk Handicrafts. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

===Terms and Expressions===

Dyed papercutting 点染剪纸

Mono-colored papercutting 单色剪纸

Shōsō-in 正仓院

smoked paper-cutting熏样剪纸

Spring Festival couplets 春联

totem worship图腾崇拜

Turfan吐鲁番

===Questions===

1. Where was the earliest papercutting found in China?

2. How many regions the distribution of Papercutting can be divided into?

3. Which two types of papercutting are the most common ones?

4. What could be the themes of the papercutting?

===Answers===

1. They were unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

2. Mono-colored papercutting and dyed papercutting.'''(答案和第三题的反了）'''

3. Northeast Changbai Mountains area, Yellow river basin area, Yangtze River basin area, The southeastern coastal area and Southwestern minority areas.'''（同上)'''

4. Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, birds and animals, animals and birds, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions and pavilions, totem worship, religious belief.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing - Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮 202070080592 英语笔译==

===The Chinese Medical Sage - Zhang Zhongjing===

Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who is respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)

Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who was respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)

Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw through the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)

This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)

Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)

When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (首都医药 2003, 40)

There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in the Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (首都医药 2003, 40)

When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about those poor people. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (首都医药 2003, 40)

Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about the poor. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the day of the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (首都医药 2003, 40)

Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrap the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (首都医药 2003, 40)

In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrapping the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult man, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)

At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:Zhang_Zhongjing.jpg]]

===References===

(2003). 张仲景故乡的二十四个故事(六) 饺子的来历[J] [Twenty-four Stories of Zhang Zhongjing's Hometown (VI) The Origin of Dumpling]. ''首都医药'' Capital Medicine (17) 40.

Zhang Maoyun 张茂云. (2014). 伤寒杂病论成书年代及仲景生平年代考历[J] [Journal on the Written Time of ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'' and the Lifeyime of Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国中医药现代远程教育'' Chinese Medicine Modern Distance Education of China (04) 19-20.

Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 甄雪燕，王利敏，梁永宣. (2013). “医圣”张仲景[J] ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国卫生人才'' China Health Human Resources (07) 88-89.

Zhang Deli 张德礼. (2019). 心系百姓的“医圣”张仲景[J] [People's Medical Sage Zhang Zhongjing]. ''现代班组'' Morden Group (05) 37.

Tan Rongzhou 覃荣周. (2013). 张仲景对我国医学发展的历史贡献[J] [Zhang Zhongjing's Historical Contribution to the Development of Chinese Medicine]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (07) 55-56.

Zhao Qingxin 赵清新. (1999). 万世医宗张仲景[J] ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''解放军健康'' PLA Health (05) 36.

Tian Yi 天一. (2020). 张仲景:“医圣”之名传天下[J] [Zhang Zhongjing: the Name of "Medical Sage" Spreads all over the World]. ''月读'' Monthly Read (03) 4-13.

===Terms and Expressions===

medical sage 医圣

''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases''《伤寒杂病论》

treatment based on syndrome differentiation/ diagnosis and treatment based on an overall analysis of the illness and the patient's condition 辩证施治

yamen 衙门

Great Cold ( 24th solar term ) 大寒

Slight Cold ( 23rd solar term ) 小寒

look, listen, question and feel the pulse -- four ways of diagnosis 望闻问切

Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup 祛寒娇耳汤

===Questions===

1. What's the honorable title Zhang Zhongjing addressed as?

2. What's the official role Zhang once taken?

3. When would Zhang treat patients for free at yamen?

4. What's the most well-known and important masterpiece Zhang ever write? What's his motive of writing it?

5. What's the relationship between Zhang Zhongjing and dumplings?

===Answers===

1. Chinese Medical Sage.

2. Changsha magistrate.

3. He treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month.

4. ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases.'' Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases.

5. Dumplings are derived from the recipe " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" developed by Zhang Zhongjing.

--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:53, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

20201215 cultexam 1

2020-12-20T04:56:28Z

Chen Jingjing: /* Facial Make-up - Chen Jingjing 陈静静 - Student No. 202070080581. Major:......... */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Chinese Astrology - Alsied, Saffana==
"Chinese Astrology"--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED ,Student No:......... Major...........

===The History===

So, what is Chinese astrology anyway? Chinese astrology is an ancient art, which uses the time of birth, including the year, month, day, and time, to reveal insights into a person’s personality traits, lifestyle, health, career direction, and compatibility with others. Although the exact origin of the system is unknown, Chinese astrology has guided the Chinese for over five thousand years and has a profound influence on our lives. The Chinese system of zodiac is actually based on a ten-year Sun-Moon cycle that conforms to the ancient Chinese agricultural calendar. The cycle is divided into the five elements: Water, Wood, Fire, Earth, and Metal as well as the twelve animals, which represent each year. The system is influenced by Yin (female) and Yang (male) cosmic force, which is said to be an interpretation of universal harmony and balance. where the source is coming from ?

===The Five Elements And YIN/YANG===

Chinese believe that the five basic elements, Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water form everything in the Universe. As a fundamental part of the Oriental philosophy, the five elements are divided into Conducive and Controlling interrelationships. A Conducive interrelationship means that these five elements will produce one another and help nourish each other. We get Fire from Wood because fire is produced by burning wood. We get Earth from Fire because fire can burn everything into ashes (earth). We get Metal from Earth because all metal has to be extracted from the earth. We get Water from Metal because metal will change into liquid when heated. And, from Water we get Wood because water nourishes plants, thus producing wood. where is the quotation please?

A Controlling interrelationship means that these five elements can control or be destroyed by another element. Wood controls Earth because trees draw nourishment out of the earth. Earth controls Water because the earth can absorb water and also blocks the flow of water through man-made dykes or naturally occurring phenomena. Water controls Fire because the water is used to put out fires. Fire controls Metal because the heat of a fire can melt metal. And, Metal controls Wood because trees can be chopped down by the metal blade of an ax. Under this philosophy, no element is considered the strongest or weakest. Each element is either controlled by another element or can produce another element. In fact, they are dependent on one another and therefore, are considered equal. In Chinese astrology, during the complete sixty-year cycle, each of the animal signs is combined with the five main elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The element of your zodiac sign will exercise its influence on your life. where is the quotation please?

===THE FORCES OF YIN / YANG===

Since ancient times, the Chinese have believed that two major forces, the Yin and the Yang, control the universe. These two forces are the foundation of Chinese philosophy, people, and even Chinese medicine. Generally speaking, the Yin signifies death whereas the Yang indicates life.

A well-known symbol called “Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) embodies the Yin and the Yang. In the circle, the two forces equilibrate the energy and keep everything balanced. No force is stronger or weaker than the other, when one is at its highest, the other is at its lowest. Together the Yin and the Yang become a whole and thus keep the universe in harmony. where the source is coming please?

Chinese astrology was invented to achieve the two following goals;

1.) To predict the future,

2.) To determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.

According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu, and is still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology to predict one's fortune. Chinese Astrology Signs are based on the year that a person is born, with each of the twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs being represented by a particular animal. The twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs are; Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Lamb, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig. It is felt in Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year. where the source is coming please ?

Today, the Chinese Zodiac constitutes as a significant part of the traditional Chinese culture. At festive events paper-cut and New-Year pictures of the Chinese Zodiac are popular among the Chinese people. In addition, the Chinese Zodiac is also seen as the symbol of China itself, enforcing its vital role within Chinese culture, although the dragon is the most recognized totem of the Chinese nation. quotation please?

The Chinese Zodiac plays a part within people's religious beliefs in China. The 12 animals are divided into two categories of Yin and Yang, which are the underlying principles of Chinese philosophy and medicine by ancient Chinese people in accordance with the Five Elements (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth). A set of fortunetelling methods proclaim that the twelve Chinese horoscope animals decide people's, as a result, the Chinese Zodiac began to play a crucial part in people’s characters, friendships, marriages, careers, health, fortune and other vital parts of their life. Within Chinese astrology, it is considered that when a person comes to their attributed year, which is decided by the year when they were born, they must wear a red belt to pursue good fortune and avoid bad luck. This custom of 'Birth Year' is widespread throughout China.quotation please?

You might also be surprised to hear that according to some astrologers, your Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.

===Terms and Expressions===

1. Chinese Astrology 中国占星学

2. Chinese Zodiac 中国十二生肖

3. Agricultural calendar 农业日历

4. ”Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) “太极拳”（终极目标）

5. The Oriental philosophy 东方哲学

===Questions===

1-Why was Chinese astrology invented?

2-How Chinese astrology relates to a person’s divine destiny?

3-What important role does the Chinese zodiac play in Chinese culture?

4- What is Chinese astrology based on?

5-Is Chinese astrology accurate?

===Answers===
1. To predict the future, to determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.

2. A person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu.

3. The year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year.

4. The Chinese zodiac is a classification scheme based on the lunar calendar that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating 12-year cycle. The 12-year cycle is an approximation to the 11.85-year orbital period of Jupiter.

5. Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.

===References===

Ting, Julian (2014), 占星學量子, createspace, ISBN 978-149373455-9

何丙郁. (2003). ''Chinese mathematical astrology: reaching out to the stars'', Routledge, ISBN 0415297591

Sun, Xiaochun, Jacob Kistemaker. (1997). ''The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society''. Brill. 3-4. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.

Kistemaker, Jacob, Sun, Xiaochun (1997). The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.

""Almanac" "lunar" zodiac beginning of spring as the boundary dislocation? — China Network". 16 February 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2011.

Eberhard, Wolfram. (1986). ''A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols''. Routledge and Keegan Paul, London. 93, 105, 309.

"Five Elements(Wu Xing)". YourChineseAstrology.com

==Spring Festival Couplets - Cao Runxin 曹润鑫 - 202070080634 - 英语口译 ==
[[File:Chunlian.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Chunlian, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]

===Spring Festival Couplets===
Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. It is the most common and important custom when celebrating Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China.With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).

Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. Pasting the Spring Festival Couplets on gateposts or doors is one of the most common and important customs when Chinese People celebrate Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China. With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).

Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made of peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).

The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also traditions for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China.In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).

There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China. In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Zhang Yanchen 张砚宸. (2020). 中国春联的文化内涵与艺术特色探微 [The exploration of the cultural connotations and artistic features of Chinese Spring Couplets]. ''汉字文化'' Chinese Character Culture (19) 34-35.
*Li Wenyan 李文艳. (2018). 春联的演变历程及民俗价值 [The evolution and folk value of Spring Festival Couplets]. ''艺术品鉴'' Art Appreciation (24) 211-212.
*Qian Yu, Liu Tao 钱钰，刘涛. (2018). 从桃符到春联的演进——基于祝由文化兴衰的视角 [The Evolution from Taofu to Spring Couplets - A perspective based on the rise and fall of Zhuyu Culture]. ''民间文化论坛'' Folk Culture Forum (01) 75-83.
*Han Daqiang 韩大强. (2014). 论春节仪式中符号元素的文化意蕴——以春联、门神为例 [On the cultural implications of symbolic elements in Chinese New Year Rituals - Taking Spring Couplets and Door Gods as examples]. ''信阳师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Xinyang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) (05) 83-87.

===Terms and Expressions ===
Spring Festival Couplets, Spring Couplets, Chinese New Year Couplets, New Year Scroll 春联

Paste 贴

Horizontal scroll 横联

Upper scroll 上联

Lower scroll 下联

===Questions ===
1.What’s the purpose of pasting Spring Festival Couplets?

2.What’s the historical origin of Spring Festival Couplets?

3.How to read the Spring Festival Couplets?

4.How to do with the Old Couplets?

===Answers ===
1.To expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.

2.It originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty.

3.First, look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.

4.Remove the old scrolls until the next New Year or tear them off after the Lantern Festival.

==Instruments, Guzheng - Chen Han 陈涵 - 202070080580 - 英语笔译==

[[File:Guzheng.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Guzheng in the shop, photo by Christopher Hsia. Click[https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Even_more_Guzhengs_(%E5%8F%A4%E7%AE%8F)_cropped.jpg#mw-jump-to-license]for original source.]]

===Guzheng===

''Guzheng'' or ''Zheng'' is one of the oldest traditional ethnic musical instruments in China. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments. As early as 2500 years ago, ''zheng'' has become an important instrument and was widespread at that time. Due to the long history, its primitive simplicity and elegant sound, people are used to calling it ''guzheng'' (''gu'' refers to “ancient”). It has beautiful timbre, broad ranges, rich performance skills and strong expressive power, so it is deeply loved by Chinese. (Wang Xiaohong, Gu Haijun 2019, 69)

There are varied accounts for how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51).

There are different opinions about how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51).--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were originally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is approximately rectangular, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. As the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)

The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were oiginally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is about a rectangle, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. As the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:Fingerpicks.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Using fingerpicks to play the guzheng. Image from Baidu. Click[https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=古筝&step_word=&hs=0&pn=27&spn=0&di=9900&pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0&istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=-1&st=-1&cs=3246661627%2C3658564396&os=3335747328%2C3552694810&simid=0%2C0&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1718&fr=&fmq=1607348039297_R&fm=result&ic=&s=undefined&hd=&latest=&copyright=&se=&sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefined&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=0&oriquery=&objurl=http%3A%2F%2Fi2.hdslb.com%2Fbfs%2Farchive%2F6a84e824b3507f96cd3f55df9c2d38744bb81962.jpg&fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Ff_z%26e3Bojtk5_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Fojtk5AzdH3F%25Ec%25la%25bC%25El%25b8%25ln%25Em%25AE%25bA%25El%25ba%25l9%25Ec%25bF%25A9%25E0%25AD%25lD%3Fiwfet1j5%3D8%26fjw6viet1j5%3D8&gsm=1c&rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=&force=undefined]for original source.]]

The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke the sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the stings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)

The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made from materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke the sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the strings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, several other schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school. (Cao Yue 2002, 84)

Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, new schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school. (Cao Yue 2002, 84)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated a TV show—''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classic music competition show. In a performance, Wang played the ''guzheng'' to merge the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)

In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated a TV show—''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classic music competition show. In a performance, Wang merged the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'' by playing ''guzheng'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

From ancient times to the present, the charm of the ''guzheng'' has never diminished. The combination of cultural heritage and modern techniques has made this national musical instrument more radiant.

===References===

*Cao Yue 曹月. (2019). 古筝的主要流派与风格特征 [The main schools and styles of the guzheng]. ''东南大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Southeast University (Philosophy and Social Science) (04) 84-87.
*Duan Lili 段丽丽. (2006). 古筝的起源与发展 [The origin and development of the guzheng]. ''民族音乐'' Folk Music (01) 57-58.
*Gao Yiwei 高祎蔚. (2020). 浅谈古筝演奏中音色的体现及把握 [The embodiment and grasp of timbre in guzheng performance]. ''中国文艺家'' Chinese literary artists (05) 39+165.
*Jin Jianmin 金建民. (1988). 古筝起源之谜 [The mystery of the origin of the guzheng]. ''中国音乐'' Chinese Music (01) 51.
*Liu Xueqi 刘雪琦. (2019). 浅谈古筝的起源与发展历程 [The origin and development history of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (14) 83.
*Tong Guiying 佟桂影. (2017). 王中山古筝作品的艺术特征研究 [Research on the artistic characteristics of Wang Zhongshan's guzheng performances]. ''才智'' Talents (24) 197-198.
*Wang Xiaohong 王晓红, Gu Haijun 顾海珺. (2019). 浅谈古筝传承与发展 [The development of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (23) 69.

===Terms and Expressions===

*Meng Tian 蒙恬
*Zhao Lin 赵璘
*''Records on Words'' 《因话录》
*anterior mountain 前岳山
*posterior mountain 后岳山
*''Yan Zhu'' 雁柱
*string pegs 弦钉
*turning box 调音盒
*zither feet 琴足
*paulownia 桐木
*mahogany 红木
*''Dai Mao'' 玳瑁
*''Yi Jia'' 义甲
*''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo'' 勾、托、劈、挑、抹
*''High Mountains and Running Water'' 《高山流水》
*''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' 《汉宫秋月》
*''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' 《寒鸦戏水》
*''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' 《柳青娘》
*Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu, Luo Jiuxiang 王巽之、曹正、曹东扶、罗九香
*Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang 王中山、袁莎、周望
*''National Music Ceremony'' 《国乐大典》

===Questions===

1. What kind of musical instrument does the ''guzheng'' belong to?

2. Why the ''guzheng'' is deeply loved by Chinese?

3. Who is Meng Tian?

4. According to the legend, how did the ''se'' develop into the ''zheng''?

5. How many strings does the ''guzheng'' have? How long is the guzheng?

6. What is the function of movable bridges?

7. What are used by ''guzheng'' performers to play the instrument? And What are they also called?

8. In ancient times, what materials were the fingerpicks made of?

9. Generally speaking, how does the players strike notes?

10. What styles can ''guzheng'' be divided into?

11. Which school does ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belong to?

12. Do you know any other ''guzheng'' music? Please list some pieces.

===Answers===

1. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments.

2. It has beautiful timbre, broad range, rich performance skills and strong expressive power.

3. He is a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), and a legend says the early form of the ''zheng'' is said to have been invented by him.

4. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part.

5. It usually has 21 strings and is 163 centimeters long.

6. They are moved to change the timbres.

7. ''Guzheng'' performers use fingerpicks to play the instrument. They are also called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia''.

8. In ancient times, fingerpicks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade.

9. Performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges.

10. The Northern school and the Southern school.

11. ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belongs to the Shandong school.

12. ''Harvest Celebration'' (''Qing Feng Nian'' 《庆丰年》), ''Fighting the Typhoon'' (''Zhan Tai Feng'' 《战台风》) and ''Song of the Fishermen'' (''Yu Zhou Chang Wan'' 《渔舟唱晚》).

==Facial Make-up - Chen Jingjing 陈静静 - 202070080581 - 英语笔译==
===Facial makeup===

Facial makeup, a sort of makeup art used in stage performance, is painted on the face of traditional opera singers in China and varies when it come to different types of role. The character roles in Beijing opera are divided into four main types according to the sex, age, social status and profession of the character. Sheng refers to male roles and is divided into laosheng (middle-aged or old men), xiaosheng (young men) and wusheng ( men with martial skills). Dan refers to female roles and is also subdivided into various types. Qingyi is a woman with a strict moral code; and laodan is an elderly woman. Jing refers to the roles with painted faces. They are usually warriors, statesmen or even demons. Chou, clown, is a comic character and can be recognized at first sight for his special make-up. The facial makeup of “sheng” and “dan” is quite simple with a thin layer of powder, called “plain face” while that of “jing” and “chou” is relatively complicated, and the former, in particular, is applied with heavy color and complicated patterns, thus gaining the name of “painted face”. In Beijing Opera, facial make-up, which is applied to Jing roles only, shows the character’s age and personality by using different colors. “Chou” is commonly called the clown as they are accustomed to wiping a patch of white powder on the nose.(Wang Hai 2018, 62) （seperate the paragraph --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)）

People hold different views when speaking of the origin of the facial makeup. It is said facial makeup was closely related to a kind of dance, called Damian, which appeared in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and thrived in the Tang Dynasty. It was performed by a single man aiming to extol King Lanling Gao Changgong’s outstanding military service and merits. He was courageous and good-looking and was bound to win every time he worn a mask that seemed frightening in the battlefield. As for the facial makeup used in opera, it is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.(Cao Juan 2019, 58)

The legendary drama played a dominant role in Ming Dynasty, rich in content and fine in role division. Both jing and chou wear their own special facial makeup. The basic color is mostly designed based on the description in the drama literature or the singers’ personal imagination. For instance, facial makeup of Guanyu is red and that of Baozhen is black. Their brow and eyes are exaggerated in some way. The pattern ratio has changed as well. Unlike the Ming Dyansty, there are both simple and sophisticated facial makeups with the same basic color. In the Mid-Qing Dynasty, as the local drama arose, facial makeup varied greatly in different places and possessed distinct local features and folk characteristics. More than 300 kinds of dramas sprung up after the 18th century. Therefore, the drama characters mount and their division is much more finer. More colors like blue, green, yellow, grey and orange are added in jing.(He Weiwei 2015, 138)

Red

Red facial makeup is symbolic of loyalty, upright and integrity like the characters Guan Yu and Wu Han.

Black

Black facial makeup gives people the impression that the actor is serious,courageous and wise like Bao Zheng, a impartial official. It also stands for mighty force and boldness like Zhang Fei in drama the Three Kingdoms and Li Kuai in drama Water Margin of the Marsh.

White

White facial makeup bears a derogatory sense, indicating a deceitful and suspicious nature like Cao Cao in drama the Three Kingdoms and Yan Song, Qin Hui.

Blue

Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly like Ma Wu and Dou Erdun.

Purple

Purple facial makeup shows more sedate and righteous like Xu Yanzhao and Zhuan Zhu.

Golden

Golden facial makeup symbolizes dignity and power fitting roles like supernatural being such as Tathagata (Sakyamuni, the creator of Buddhism) and Erlang Shen (a Chinese God with a third truth-seeing eye in the middle of his forehead).

The features of facial makeup are mainly as follows:
First, it is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness.Second, it is closely related to the character’s personality.Thirdly, its pattern is stylized. Chinese Peking opera makeup is favored by many opera enthusiasts and is widely known both at home and abroad, having been regarded as one of the mark of traditional Chinese culture.
It is derived from the stage and could be seen on some large buildings, packages of some commercials, various porcelains and people’s clothes in different styles. It is far beyond the scope of stage use, showing its status in people’s heart and strong vitality. Out of curiosity and affection for facial makeup in Chinese opera, a great many foreign friends and Chinese of insight start to explore the mystery of it.(Cao Juan, 2019, 61)

===B. Terms and Expressions===

painted face 花脸

clown 丑角

Sheng 生

Dan 旦

Jing 净

Chou 丑

Qingyi 青衣

xiaosheng 小生

laosheng 老生

wusheng 武生

Gao Changgong 高长恭

legend，romance 传奇剧

Erlang Shen, Erlang 二郎神

Tathagata, Buddha 如来佛

Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Water Margin of the Marsh 水浒传

===C. Questions===

1.How many types are character roles divided into in Beijing opera?

2.What are the differences bbetween Sheng and Dan?

3.What are the special features of Chou?

4.What is the function of facial mask in Beijing opera?

5.What are the main features of facial makeup?

6.What are the characteristics of characters wearing blue facial makeup?
===Answers===
1.Four types:Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou.

2.Sheng refers to male roles while Dan refers to female roles.

3.A patch of white powder is wiped on their nose.

4.It is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.

5.It is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness and is closely related to the character’s personality and its pattern is stylized.

6.Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly

===References===

He Weiwei 何伟伟.(2015).浅谈京剧脸谱的色彩研究[Study on the colors of the facial makeup in Beijing opera].艺术科技 Art and Technology ,28(04):138-139.

Cao Juan 曹娟.(2019).中国京剧脸谱之考究[Study on Beijing opera facial makeup].中国京剧,(01):58-61.

Wang Hai 王海.(2018).京剧脸谱程式化特征与传统文化元素[Features of Beijing opera facial makeup and the traditional elements it related to].中国京剧 Chinese Peking Opera,(08):62-65.

==Literature, Science Fiction, and Fantasy - Dashkin, Gennadii - Student No.201911080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

=== Three Worldwide Famous Chinese Novelists of Modern Science Fiction and Fantasy===

Nowadays, modern literature is one of the most interesting and gorgeous sides of worldwide cultural processes. It heals soul and heart and can change everything to its best. However, it can be difficult sometimes to talk about literature without dividing it into genres. We can guess that the modern generation in the whole world prefers to read something about the future. Something, that can help to understand what will be next. And that is why one of the most popular genres are with no doubt - Science Fiction and Fantasy. So, let's see who are the most popular Chinese sci-fi and fantasy authors who broaden our mental horizons.

====1.Liu Cixin（刘慈欣）====

Liu Cixin was born in 1963 in Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, 400 kilometers from Beijing. Other famous natives of the area were Gaozu, the founder of the Tang Imperial Dynasty, and Jia Zhangke, the chief filmmaker of modern China. The parents of the future writer worked in a mine in Shanxi, and his first conscious years fell on the heyday of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). (Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America 2019, 1)

Liu received his technical education from North China University of Water and Electricity. After graduation, he worked as a computer engineer at a power plant in his native Yangquan. Now Liu Qixin is combining his studies of literature with the post of chief engineer of the China Energy Investment Corporation at the Nianziguan Power Plant.

Liu Cixin started writing relatively late. At 26, he wrote China in 2185, but the book never saw the light of the day. Mostly this was due to the consequences of the Cultural Revolution - in the late 80s, almost no science fiction literature was published in China. Later, when the opportunity arose to publish the novel, the writer himself re-read it, considered it second-rate, badly written, and naive, and decided that he did not deserve publication. However, Liu Cixin did not give up and in 1999 he released another novel, written by him at a young age, but significantly modified and edited for publication. This is how Liu Cixin's first big book appeared - the novel "Supernova Era". Before that, some of his stories were published in magazines, but the writer's name became really noticeable after the publication of this book. In it, as a result of the radiation of a supernova, all people over 30 are threatened with death within a year. Since then, the life of humanity has changed dramatically, and although the doomed older generation made heroic efforts to make the existence of young people better, a year later the world is plunging into an abyss of chaos and violence. (Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,352)

Liu's first books were warmly received in China, but nevertheless, the real success came to the author only in 2006, when he published the first part of his trilogy "Memory of the Earth's Past" - the novel "The Problem of Three Bodies" in the Chinese journal Science Fiction World. This book first made the writer a real star in his homeland, and 7 years later, when the Chinese-American science fiction writer Ken Liu translated it into English, and all over the world. The novel has become so popular that the entire trilogy is often referred to as "The Three-Body Problem," although this is not formally true.

Interesting fact: Such famous people as Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg called this book the best and recommended it for everyone to read.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In 2006, the book won the Galaxy Award, the main Chinese literary science fiction award, and after being translated into English, it was nominated for all three major world awards: Hugo, Locus, and Nebula. The novel only won the Hugo Award, but in 2017 the third part of the Eternal Life of Death trilogy took over Locus.

Liu Cixin is definitely a unique writer, with his own style, philosophy, and special vision of science fiction. So far, only three of his novels have been published outside of China, but he has already won such recognition that Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg recommend reading the Cixin trilogy. But the main thing that Liu Cixin has already managed to prove with his books is that science fiction literature is capable of giving generous shoots not only on the basis of European culture. Liu Cixin is the first person outside of the Western world to achieve resounding success in science fiction. And, perhaps, his trilogy is just the beginning of a new global phenomenon. After all, it's not for nothing that many experts have been saying for several years that the future belongs to China. It is very likely that this phrase refers not only to politics and economics but also to science fiction literature.

In this section, I would recommend adding authors whose books Liu Cixin recommends reading.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆） ====

Today this author is called by others the “Chinese William Gibson”. He can also be called one of the leaders of Chinese science-fiction and a cyberpunk novelist. He was born in China in 1981 in a seaside province in southeastern China called Guangdong, which borders Hong Kong and Macau. To say more accurately he grew up a few miles from Guiyu, the largest waste dump. Mountains of scrap electronics are shipped there every year from all over the world. Thousands of workers sort through the garbage in search of something that is suitable for recycling. This topic became the central topic in a novel called “Waste Tide”.

Also, by the early 2000s, Chen Qiufang had become a big fan of virtual chats and the Internet. He saw great potential in the Internet and technologies in general, an opportunity to change the world for the better. After graduation, Chen worked with Google, Baidu, and co-founded Noitom, a virtual reality startup in Beijing. As science fiction began to gain popularity in China and receive support from the government, Qiufan turned to full-fledged novels.

His debut book was ''The Empty Wave'', "combining realism and allegory to represent the hybridity of humans and machines." Chen Qiufan's novels and stories won three Galaxy Awards and twelve Chinese Nebula Awards. His works have been translated into German, French, Finnish, Korean, Czech, Italian, Japanese, Polish, and Russian.

His book ''Waste Tide'' became one of the most discussed books around the world and got universal acclaim from critics and usual readers. The fantastic mix of dark future with reality components made this book a guidebook for those who are worried about ecological problems and the darkest sides of human progress.

An interesting fact that can also be added: In a year he watches about 100 films and reads 50 books in any way related to science fiction and Cyberpunk.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.Rebecca F. Kuang (匡蘦秀)====

When Rebecca was four years old, her family emigrated to the United States from Guangzhou, China. Kuang's father grew up in Leiyang, in Hunan province, and his mother in Hainan Island.

Quang grew up in Dallas, Texas, and later went to Georgetown University in large part because of the college's discussion team. Quang began writing The Opium War when she worked as a debate trainer in China during a break from her studies. Rebecca always liked writing, but she was afraid that an education related to literature might not give her a profession in demand. But during the direct work on the book, she completed several literary courses. As a result, her first novel was published when she was only 22 years old.

Rebecca graduated from the university in June 2018. She further attended Magdalene College, Cambridge University as a recipient of the 2018 Marshall Fellowship, where she earned her Master of Philosophy in Sinology. She is currently pursuing a Master's Degree in Contemporary Sinology from Oxford University.

Her debut novel, The Opium War, is a war fantasy setting inspired by the history and culture of China. The Opium War is a dark fantasy genre. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century. The conflict refers to the Second Sino-Japanese War, but the scenery is inspired by the Song Dynasty. The novel accurately recreates the social, mythological, and philosophical realities of China of the chosen era.

I also suggest adding that she has been involved in several new projects at the moment, such as the well-known Star Wars. Can you write something about this?--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Don't forget to add sources at the end of each paragraph.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

1. Science fiction - 科幻

2. Fantasy - 奇幻

3. Horizon - 地平线

4. Broad - 拓宽

5. Hybrid - 杂种

6. The plot - 情节

7. Garbage - 垃圾堆

8. Heyday - 壮年

9. Supernova - 超新星

===Questions===

1. What was the first book written by Liu Cixin?

2. What is the most popular trilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?

3. Who is called Chinese William Gibson?

4. What is Rebecca Quang's Opium War plot based on?

===Answers===

1. Supernova Era

2. Memory of the Earth's Past

3. Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆）

4. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century.

===References===

1. Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/03/magazine/ken-liu-three-body-problem-chinese-science-fiction.html

2. Liu Cixin, Supernova Era, 2019. 352 pp.

3. Chen Qiufan, Waste Tide, 2019. 342 pp.

4. Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018. 530 pp.

==Stilts - Chen Yongxiang 陈永相英语笔译 202070080582==
[[File:stilts.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Stilts presentation during the Miliangtun Stilt Festival, image from Baike. Click [http://img3.imgtn.bdimg.com/it/u=2060438651,2837589998&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

===Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage — Miliangtun Village Stilts===

<center>Chen Yongxiang 陈永相英语笔译 202070080582</center>

====Introduction====

Stilt is one of the folk dances of the Han nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near. (Huo Linmo,2018)

Stilt is one of the folk dances of the ''Han'' nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty and bestowed by Emperor Qianlong. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing over 250 years ago. Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performance techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage. (Xingxing,2019)

As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from the "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing. It was bestowed by Emperor Qianlong, and has a history of more than 250 years. Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performing techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage protection project.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic in these funny characters. (Xingxing,2019)

The only serious character among the 13 roles is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords are his signature tricks. Others like the young boy, a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He plays the trick of going fishing because that's his character setting. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to accompany the performance and amuse the audience. (Xingxing,2019)

The show of Kylin Songzi (麒麟送子), which indicates good luck and peace, marks the end of the whole performance. Tuotou lies down flat, the young boy riding on his waist like a living lion. Mr. Plaster and young master raise their waists with Yupo dancing Yangko behind. Fisherman uses his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance. (Xingxing,2019)

The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are, Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic. Among the 13 roles, the only serious one is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords, that's his work. Others like the young boy, just a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He goes fishing because of his fixed character. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to amuse the audience. Gong-players following drum-players, handsome and ugly, they are just like the final fighters. Then it comes the show of Kylin Songzi（麒麟送子）after they stop playing; Tuotou lying flat; Mr. Plaster and young master raising their waists; Yupo dancing Yangko behind, pulling his two legs; Fisherman using his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth; the young boy riding on Tuotou's waist like a lion. Then it follows the routine of going downhill. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

As a renowned fair, Miliangtun Village Stilts is characterized by risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as Yasha Searches the Sea, Su Qin Carries Swords, squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. (Xingxing,2019)

Legs and feet of stilt-walkers must be agile. Jumping the large bench is quite demanding that normal players can hardly accomplish. The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. Stilt-walkers control the balance with waist. They must bend their knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. The upper body and their feet must be coordinated, and swing from side to side to ensure the balance when stepping on the wooden stilts. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing. (Xingxing,2019)

Miliangtun Village Stilts as a renowned fair,are known for the features of risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as ''Yasha Searches the Sea'', ''Su Qin Carries Swords'', squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. Legs and feet must be agile, jumping the large bench is quite demanding that normal players can hardly accomplish. Each of the thirteen roles has its own talents. Tuotou is an adventurous figure who leads the team. The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. The centre of balance is extremely difficult to grasp. One must bend his knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. Stilt-walkers control the balance with waist, and the upper body and their feet must be coordinated to ensure the balance. Stilt-walkers step on the wooden stilts, swinging from side to side. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair, which will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. As the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts stands out among the stilt fairs and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. It is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny, which is divided into lead in, head stilts command, and separation performance, forming into a fixed set of performance routines after long-term drills since the establishment. Miliangtun Village Stilts has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks.(Sun Miao,2018)

There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair. It will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. Today, Miliangtun Village Stilts as the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, stands out among the stilt fairs in Beijing and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. Miliangtun Village Stilt is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny. A fixed set of performance routines has gradually formed after long-term drills since its founding. It is divided into lead in, head stilt command, separation in formal performance. Stilts-walkers individually perform difficult tricks such as the big jump and the onion-pulling, then amuse and perform in separation, ending with the show of Kylin Songzi, which indicates good luck and peace. Miliangtun Village Stilt has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

====Terms and Expressions====

Miliangtun (village name) 米粮屯

stilts 高跷

intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产

folk dance 民间舞蹈

Toutou 陀头

Laozuozi 老坐子

young boy 小二哥

young master 公子

Mr.Plaster 药先生

Choupo 丑婆

fisherman渔翁

Yupo 渔婆

wood-cutter 柴翁

handsome and ugly drum-players 俊鼓和丑鼓

handsome and ugly gong-players 俊锣和丑锣

====Questions====

1. Where does Miliangtun Village Stilts originate?

2. How many years of history does Miliangtun Village Stilts have?

3. How many roles in Miliangtun Village Stilts?

4. When was Miliangtun Village Stilts listed as the intangible cultural heritage?

5. How long is the shortest and the longest stilts?

====Answers====

1. Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing.

2. More than 250 years.

3. 13.

4. In 2006.

5. The shortest stilt is two feet long, and the longest reaches over five feet.

====References====

Huo Linmo 霍淋漠. (2018). 高碑店市河头村高跷会考察与研究. [Investigation and research on stilts fair in Hetou Village, Gaobeidian City]. Hebei University. 河北大学.

Sun Miao 孙淼. (2018). "一跷多艺": 胜芳高跷会的舞体表征与比较研究. ["Multi-skills with one stilt": A comparative study of the dance style of Shengfang stilt fair]. ''长江丛刊'', (24)18.

Xingxing 邢星. (2019). 米粮屯高跷 Miliangtun Village Stilts. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%B1%B3%E7%B2%AE%E5%B1%AF%E9%AB%98%E8%B7%B7%E4%BC%9A/12762743?fr=aladdin

Intangible cultural heritage Miliangtun Village Stilts. (2019). https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1643344511003907548&wfr=spider&for=pc

--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:46, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

==Chinese Lion Dancing - Ding Daifeng 丁代凤 202070080583 英语笔译==

===Introduction===

Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of luck and good fortune. However, there is no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,77)

Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of good fortune. However, there was no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.

When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva to protect Buddha, people gradually have a good impression on it as a symbol of wisdom.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

There are a number of stories about the origin of lion dance. Here is one of the sayings. During the Ming Dynasty, it was said that a monster always damaged crops in Guangdong at the end of the year. Local people called it “Nian”. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.(Zhang Guobin 2019,157)

In lion dance, lions are made of colorful cloth strips, and each lion is usually performed by two people, one handling the head and the other moving the body and tail. Under the music of gongs and drums, performers dress up as lions and make various forms of lion movements. The lion dance is an art which combines martial arts, dance and music together. Originating in the Han Dynasty, lion dance has prevailed among Chinese people and spread throughout all over China since the Tang Dynasty. There are mainly two kinds of lion dancing in China: northern lion dancing and southern lion dancing.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

===Northern lion dancing===

The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur, and even the pants and shoes of performers are the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance is performed by two people. Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur even witrh the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance two people. Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:58, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

===Southern lion dancing===

Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom（AD 221-263）. Guan Gong lion performs bravely, Zhang Fei lion's action is rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion is calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing, dancers use different “Ma Bu” or horse stances, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom（AD 221-263）. Guan Gong lion is brave, Zhang Fei lion rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing through using different “Ma Bu” or horse stances by performers, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 10:02, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

Dancers usually perform the traditional custom of “Cai Qing”, literally meaning "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming. People use lettuces as greens and hang them with red envelopes. The lion dancers perform in front of the greens with hesitation, then finally jump up and eat the lettuces in one gulp. (Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

In recent years, in order to maintain the characteristics of the traditional Chinese lion dance, the southern lion dancing and the northern lion dancing complement each other and improve together. (Liu Xing 2019,39)

===Terms and Expressions===

Western Regions 西域

mount 坐骑

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

gong 锣

northern lion dancing 南狮

southern lion dancing 北狮

colorful silk ball 绣球

wooden stakes 木桩

spiritual resemblance神似

Liu Bei lion 刘备狮

Guan Gong lion 关公狮

Zhang Fei lion 张飞狮

sworn brothers 结义兄弟

horse stances 马步

Cai Qing 采青

lettuces 生菜

===Questions===

1. How long is the history of lion dance in China?

2. Why did people gradually accept lion as a sacred animal?

3. Why did people use lion dance to celebrate the New Year?

4. What is the main difference between southern lion dancing and northern lion dancing?

5. What is the center of southern lion dancing?

6. How many colors are there in the heads of southern lions? And what are they?

7. What is “Cai Qing”? And what do you know about “Cai Qing”?

===Answers===

1. It is with a history of about 2000 years.

2. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.

3. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.

4. The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion, but southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance.

5. It is in southern China’s Guangdong province.

6. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow.

7. It means "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming.

===References===

Liu Xing刘兴.(2019). 从文化结构看舞龙舞狮运动的现代化发展[Modern Development of Dragon and Lion Dance from the Perspective of Cultural Structure]. 体育师友Sports Teachers and Friends 42(04): 37-39.

Yu Zhaojie于兆杰.(2008).中国舞狮的起源及其发展演变[The Origin and Development of Lion Dance in China]. 搏击. 武术科学Wushu Science (06): 75-76.

Zhang Guobin张国斌.(2019).中国传统舞龙舞狮运动历史文化探索及传播研究[Research on the Historical and Cultural Exploration and Dissemination of Chinese Traditional Dragon and Lion Dance]. 散文百家Prose Hundred (10): 157-158.

Zhang Yanqing张延庆.(2003). 中国舞狮的起源与文化演变[Origin and Cultural Evolution of Lion Dancing in China]. 体育文化导刊Sports Culture Guide (11): 77-78.

==Literature, Tang-Song - Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉 202070080584 英语笔译==
===A. The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===
[[File:Tang Song Ba Da Jia.jpg]]

===Brief Introduction of The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===

The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and Three Su(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the ancient prose movement in the Song Dynasty, and Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the advacators of the "Ancient Prose Movement". Su Shi, Su Xun and Su Zhe are called Three Su. What else, Su Xun is the their father and Su Shi is the older brother. While Su Shi's teacher is Ouyang Xiu, who is also the teacher of Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25）

The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the ancient prose movement in the Song Dynasty, and Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the advacators of the "Ancient Prose Movement". Su Shi, Su Xun and Su Zhe are called "Three Su". What's more, Su Xun is their father and Su Shi is the older brother. While Su Shi's teacher is Ouyang Xiu, who is also the teacher of Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25）--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, they both advocated prose and opposd parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their sucessive waves of innovation of ancient ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)

In a word, they all advocated prose and opposed parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their successive waves of innovation of ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1. Han Yu'''
[[File:Han Yu.jpg]]

Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as “ The Decline of Eight Generations” by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasty. Han Yu was called “Han Liu” with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu’s poems as “ Du poem Han pen” by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as “ The Article Giant” and “ Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations” with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory. (Hou Benta 2014, 135)

Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was a native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as “ The Decline of Eight Generations” by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasties. Han Yu was called “Han Liu” with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu’s poems as “ Du poem Han pen” by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as “ The Article Giant” and “ Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations” with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory. (Hou Benta 2014, 135)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in advocating the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)

Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. Liu Zongyuan'''
[[File:Liu Zongyuan.jpg]]

Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong , now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong ", " Mr. Hedong ", also known as" Liu Liuzhou " because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Changan and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.

Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong, now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong", " Mr. Hedong ", also known as "Liu Liuzhou" because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Chang'an and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu ", with Liu Yuxi as " Liu Liu ", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu ". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)

He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu", with Liu Yuxi as "Liu Liu", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

He was a deep-thinking philosopher and litterateur, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude in writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)

He was a philosopher and litterateur with many wise ideas, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude to writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3. Ouyang Xiu'''
[[File:Ouyang Xiu.jpg]]

Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the “Liu Yi scholar”, which means that he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone. He was native in Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji’an city in Jiangxi province but born in Mianzhou, now Minayang city in Sichuan province.

Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the “Liu Yi scholar”, which means that he had ten thousand volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone. He was a native in Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji’an city in Jiangxi province but born in Mianzhou, now Mianyang city in Sichuan province.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Xiu’s poems, Ci and prose were all the crown of that time. His poetry was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style stressing on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was his representatives.

Ouyang Xiu’s poems, Cis and proses were all the crown of that time. His poetry was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style stressing on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was one of his representatives.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu’s ancient prose, and led the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, Ouyang Xiu not only drove away the odd style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation with his own unique style and high talent. It has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height. (Hou Benta 2014, 136)

Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu’s ancient prose, and led the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, Ouyang Xiu not only drove away the old style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation with his own unique style and high talent. It has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height. (Hou Benta 2014, 136)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''4. Su Xun'''
[[File:Su Xun.jpg]]

Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. In 19 years old, he married Mrs. Cheng. Later in 27 years old, he determined to study hard. After decade of hard work, he made a huge academic progress.

Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. He married Mrs. Cheng at the age of 19. Later when he was 27, he determined to study hard. After a decade of hard work, he made huge academic progress.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Su Xun was a man of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world ", to" apply to the present ". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Because he had a better understanding of that social reality and was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot. (Zhou Zhenfu, 2016, 27)

Su Xun was a man of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world", to "apply to the present". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Because he had a better understanding of social reality and was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot. (Zhou Zhenfu, 2016, 27)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''5. Su Shi'''
[[File:Su Shi.jpg]]

Su Shi, with a fame as " Dongpo Jushi ", was native in Meishan in Sichuan . He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty .

Su Shi, with a fame as " Dongpo Jushi ", was a native in Meishan in Sichuan. He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Su Shi has made great achievements in poetry, Ci, prose, calligraphy, painting and so on. He was regarded as one of the most outstanding man in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. His was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area, so he was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)

Su Shi has made great achievements in poetry, Ci, prose, calligraphy, painting and so on. He was regarded as one of the most outstanding men in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. He was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area, so he was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called “Su Men Four bachelors”.

Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage.(Zhangjian 2019, 1) Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called “Su Men Four bachelors”.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6. Su Zhe'''
[[File:Su Zhe.jpg]]

Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou , now Sichuan province. In the Jiayou second year (in 1057), he with his brother Su Shi climbed jinshi branch. Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He was good at politics and history. He discussed world affairs in some political works such as The New Theory and the Six States. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode , such as The "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)

Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou, now Sichuan province. In the the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), Su Shi, together with his brother, climbed jinshi branch. Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He was good at politics and history. He discussed world affairs in some political works such as The New Theory and the Six States. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode, such as The "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''7. Wang Anshi'''
[[File:Wang Anshi.jpg]]

Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo . He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province .

Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo. He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature aimed to serve the society first, that means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary propositions because his essays were mostly about the enlightenment of political decrees and suitable for world use. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)

Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature should aim to serve the society first. That means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary propositions because his essays were mostly about the enlightenment of political decrees and suitable for world use. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''8. Zeng Gong'''
[[File:Zeng Gong.jpg]]

Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In Jiayou second year (in 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng" , including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.

Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng", including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text. (Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple and little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments, for example, the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In these works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.

Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text.(Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple with little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments, for example, the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In these works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9. Comparison between the Ancient Prose Movement and Renaissance'''

Although there was seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the Middle Ancient period of Western history. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their respective cultures.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)

Although there were seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the Middle Ancient period of Western history. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their cultures respectively.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison in ideology:

The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the pre-Qin period and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome. (Wang Yaping 2001, 8)Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.

The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the pre-Qin period and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.(Wang Yaping 2001, 8) Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison in writing style:

The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient prose, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of the Tang Dynasty studied the simple language style of the pre-Qin period, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek period.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)

The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient proses, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of the Tang Dynasty studied the simple language style of the pre-Qin period, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek period.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Comparison in literary form:

The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the six dynasties, but also laid a good creative foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language. (He Lei 2017, 159) While although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theory and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said :" Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)

The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the six dynasties, but also laid a good creative foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language.(He Lei 2017, 159) Although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theories and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said: "Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===B. Terms and Expressions===
The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters 唐宋八大家

Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties 《唐宋八大家文钞》

Ancient Prose Movement 古文运动

parallel prose 骈文

The Decline of Eight Generations 文起八代之衰

The Article Giant 文章巨公

Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations 百代文宗

Han Changli Collection 《韩昌黎集》

External collection 《外集》

The Teacher's Theory《师说》

Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties 先秦两汉时期

writing in classical Chinese 文言文

feudal provincial of Liuzhou 柳州刺史

official supervisor of imperial censor 监察御史

Liu He Dong Colloection 《柳河东集》

Northern Song Dynasty 北宋

a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions 金石遗文一千卷

Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties 三代

the crown of that time 一时之冠

Southern Tang Dynasty 南唐

Yu Feng 余风

The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong 《欧阳文忠公文集》

the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement北宋诗文革新运动

Heng Lun 《衡论》

Duke Jingguo 荆国公

The Book to the Emperor 《上皇帝书》

Dongpo Jushi 东坡居士

Ci writer 词人

Unconstrained Ci School豪放派

literary and artistic attainments 文学艺术造诣

the first all-round talent in ancient China 中国古代第一全才

Su Men Four bachelors 苏门四学士

the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council 《上枢密韩太尉书》

The New Theory《新论》

On the Six Kingdoms 《六国论》

Ode 赋

The Ode to Ink bamboo 《墨竹赋》

Seven Zengs of Nanfeng 南丰七曾

the doctrine before the text先道后文

the Book to Ouyang She Ren 《上欧阳舍人书》

the Book to Bachelor Cai 《上蔡学士书》

the Six Dynasties 六朝

===C. Questions===
1.Who are the pioneers of the Ancient Prose Movement?

2.Which kind of prose they advocate in the Ancient Prose Movement?

3.Do you know any representatives of Liu Zongyuan?

4.Why Ouyang Xiu is called "Liu Yi Scholar"?

5.What’s the relationship among Su Xun, Su Shi and Su Zhe?

6.Who are the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng"?

7.Do you know any about the Renaissance?

===D. Answers===

1.Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.

2.The prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties.

3.The "Liu He Dong Colloection".

4.Because he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone.

5.Su Xun is the father of Su Shi and Su Zhe. Also, Su Shi is the older brother.

6.Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.

7.The Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.

===References===
Fang Wenben 房本文. (2013). 士族兴衰与骈散消长—唐代古文运动发微 [The rise and fall of nobles and parallel prose- The subtleties of the Ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.

Hou Benta 候本塔. (2014). 论唐、宋古文运动中的韩愈与欧阳修 [On Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu in the Tang and Song Dynasties]. 三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Three Gorges University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition) 36(S1):135-137.

He Lei 何蕾. (2017). 中唐古文运动:社会转型背景下的文体之变 [The Ancient Prose Movement in the Middle Tang Dynasty: Stylistic Changes in the Context of social transformation]. 青海社会科学 Qinghai Social Sciences (03):156-162.

Lu Sihong 芦思宏. (2016). 略论中西文学的复古倾向—以唐代古文运动与意大利文艺复兴为例 [On the retro tendency in Chinese and Western Literature -- a case study of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang Dynasty and the Italian Renaissanc].中外文化与文论 Chinese and Foreign culture and literary theory (01):71-81.

Wang Yaping 王亚平.(2001). 论西欧中世纪的三次文艺复兴 [On the three Renaissance in The Middle Ages in Western Europe]. 东北师大学报 Journal of Northeast Normal University (06):1-8.

Zhangjian 张剑. (2019). 唐宋古文运动的文学维度 [The literary dimension of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 10-28(010).

Zhangjian 张剑. (2019). 唐宋古文运动的思想维度 [The ideological dimension of the Ancient Prose movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 08-26(010).

Zhao Kun 赵鲲. (2016). 中国文学中的两大文学变革运动—古文运动与“五四”新文学运动之比较 [A comparison between the two major literary revolutions in Chinese literature - the Ancient Prose Movement and the May 4th New Literary Movement]. 解放军艺术学院学报 Journal of Pla Art Academy (01):113-119.

Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (2016). 唐宋八大家论 [On the eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 中华活页文选(教师版) Chinese Loose-leaf Selections (Teachers' edition) (12):25-31.

==Music, Instruments, Pipa - Gao Mingzhu 高明珠 - 202070080585 - Translation 英语笔译==
[Please add your student no. and your major.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Pipa--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 08:22, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

===1. A Brief Introduction===

[[File:1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The structure of Pipa. image from 360Baike. Click[https://image.so.com/view?q=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&src=srp&correct=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&ancestor=list&cmsid=b749b87b72b5c9427d6560a39d41548f&cmras=6&cn=0&gn=0&kn=0&crn=0&bxn=0&fsn=60&cuben=0&pornn=0&manun=0&adstar=0&clw=247#id=22b2926be2637560e928bbc9318219fb&currsn=0&ps=58&pc=58]for original source.]]

Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. Being made of wood or bamboo, its speaker box takes the shape of half pear with 4 strings on it ,which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing）" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly using the left hand to press the string and the right hand to play. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank the first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020)

Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. It is made of wood or bamboo, and its speaker box is half pear-shaped with 4 strings on it which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing)" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly and presses the strings with the left hand and plays them with the right hand. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.The Development of Pipa===

The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: first, the Qu Xiang pipa（curving-neck pipa） was introduced into China in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important musical instrument; In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, turning a breakthrough in timbre and performance technology and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: First, the Qu Xiang pipa (curving-neck pipa) was introduced to China during the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important instrument. In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, making a breakthrough in timbre and performance techniques and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one way to play pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style .(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one skill in playing the pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. Chinese traditional instrument playing style melted in its playing characteristics, and the pipa made great breakthroughs in playing skills and artistic expression and other aspects. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but it had changed from the original plucking to pointing, and the posture of playing changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. And it was replaced by Chinese traditional instrument playing style with a major breakthrough in playing skills and artistic expression. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but its initial plucking style had transitioned to finger-playing, and the posture of playing the pipa changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and skills of pipa performance were more mature, and the playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the range of the audience of pipa performance changed from small to large. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and playing skills of pipa performance were more mature, and its playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the audience of pipa performance has changed from less to more. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene. (Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing pipa remained upright. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement of performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so not every class of the group can appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing the pipa also kept vertical. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement in their performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so the common people without cultural accumulation often cannot appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Pipa Schools and Their Chracteristics===

The main reason for the formation of various Pipa schools in China was that the southwards moving of economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North school and the South school. Later, the North school collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The formation of Pipa schools in China was due to the southwards moving of the economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North school and the South school. Later, the North school collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)The Wuxi school

The Wuxi school belongs to the original North school, and is different from the South school in terms of the tremolo. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi school was not as influential as the South school, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The Wuxi School belongs to the Northern School and differs from the Southern School in terms of finger rotation method. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi school was not as influential as the South school, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)The Pinghu school

The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu school's tremolo of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu school's rotation method of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(3)The Pudong School

Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both literary and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and so on.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both civil and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and rolling of four strings.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(4)The Chongming school

The Chongming school also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, The Chongming school pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuance in the slow, the order in the fast, and the soft and lively sound. In the aspect of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

The Chongming school also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, the Chongming school pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuity in the slow, the order in the fast, and soft and lively sound. In terms of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(5)The Shanghai school

This school gathers the characteristics of each school and has its own characteristics. In terms of playing techniques, it has created many new fingering techniques and most of the emotional expressions are characterized by masculinity and unrestraint.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

===4.Traditional Pipa Music===

Traditional pipa music can be divided into military songs, literary songs and military-literary songs.

Military song emphasizes the playing skills and strength of the right hand. Its style is magnificent, generous and grand. The music focuses on narration being realistic and narrative. It is often narrated continuously according to the development of content and plot. It has a large structure, vivid and colorful plot, and distinct paragraphs.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) The representative repertoires are "Ambush on All Sides", "Bury Me High", "Hai Qing Hunting the Swan", "General Order in the Han Dynasty". [Maybe you could add the Pinyin version of these songs' names or add them into the terms and expressions so as to let readers know the Chinese.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound heart talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to with simple and moving melody or beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" and so on.

Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left-hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound inner talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to in a simple and moving melody or in a beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" and so on. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Military-literary song is the combination of martial song and literary song. The representative songs are "The Spring Snow", "High Mountain and Flowing Water", "Dragon Boat", "Flute and Drum at Sunset" and so on.

===5.References=== [References] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*[1]360百科 “琵琶”词条[The introduction of pipa on 360 Baike website].https://baike.so.com/doc/4922064-5141209.html.2020

*[2]邓思佳. 中国琵琶流派问题及特征[Schools and characteristics of Chinese pipa][J]. 艺术家,2020,(10):56.

*[3]周显顺,张玉莹. 浅谈琵琶演奏的发展史[A brief analysis of the development of the playing of pipa][J]. 黄河之声,2018,(16):56.

*[4]成玄歌. 琵琶不同派别与文曲、武曲的关系——以平湖派和浦东派为例[The relationship between literary songs and military songs and different schools of pipa----taking Pinghu school and Pudong school as examples][J]. 艺术品鉴,2020,(29):51-52.

[Please correct your format of your references.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Terms and Expressions===

*弹拨乐器—plucked instruments

*汉化—Chinesization

*套曲—divertimentoes

*游牧民族—nomad tribe

*宫廷乐—court music

*轮指法—tremolo

*音色—timbre

*曲目—repertoire

*并弦—parallel string

*指法—fingering techniques

===7.Questions===

1、How many stages did pipa go through during its development?

2、What characteristics did pipa have during Wei and Jin dynasties?

3、What changes had been made to pipa during Ming and Qing dynasties?

4、How many schools does pipa have and what are they?

5、Can you list at least 3 representative repertoires of literary songs played by pipa?

===8.Answers===

1、Four.

2、It still retained its strong western characteristics, and the playing way of it is unchained, heroic and simple.

3、The pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics.

4、Five. They are Wuxi school, Pinghu school, Pudong School, Chongming school andShanghai school.

5、"Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" .

[Please change your sections into the following form.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:02, 14 December 2020 (UTC)
===Terms and Expressions===

==Mythology: Huli-jing - Grosheva, Anna - Student No. 201921080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)==

=== Huli-jing figure in Chinese mythology and its analogs in Japan and Korea ===

The topic of werewolves in the XXI century is perhaps one of the most discussed and studied. Along with vampires and zombies, the image of werewolves is firmly entrenched in world cinema and literature. However, as a rule, speaking about the motives for the transformation of a person into an animal, most people have information mainly about lycanthropy, that is, about the specific transformation of a person into a wolf (werewolf). At the same time, the theme of werewolves is represented by a fairly large number of transformations of a person not only into a wolf but also into other animals. In Chinese mythology, one of the most popular werewolf myths is the myth of the Huli Jing, or werewolf foxes. In the Middle Ages, these myths were very popular and in-demand among writers. But what is the attitude of Huli-Jing in modern China? Are they given a place in modern culture, or do werewolf foxes now sound more like a kind of atavism or a children's fairy tale?

'''1. Huli-jing (狐狸精) in China'''

First, we need to recreate the image of the Huli-Jing and what was seen in ancient and medieval China. Most often, the Huli-Jing was presented in the form of not just a young, but extremely beautiful women. Interestingly, the image of werewolf foxes has been known in China since the times of the Xia dynasty and its founder Yu, who married a nine-tailed white fox who lived on Mount Tu.

People, especially women, believed that thanks to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to fight the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty that the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not completely eradicated in China. Probably, a more competent decision was made to give the werewolf woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor.

People, especially women, believed that due to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to resist the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty reign. That time the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not fully eradicated in other parts of China. Probably, a more competent decision in between acolytes area was made to give the werefox woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Perhaps the most striking examples of where the changed image of the Huli Jing is found can be called the stories of Pu Songlin about werewolf foxes. It is his stories, where girls are subject to the curse of turning into foxes, that reflect their position as hostages of their own life situations or even fears.

The theme of fatal love in the stories of werewolf foxes appears as a continuous line in Pu Songling, this suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their evil ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment.

The theme of fatal love in the stories of werefoxes appear as a continuous line in Pu Songling tales. This suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their savage ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Of course, the image of the Huli Jing as a mythological character by the 21st century was constantly supplemented with small details. We can say that most of the works of literature and cinema, in which the werewolf fox was encountered, for the most part, were very strongly romanticized. Remaining in its own way a relatively neutral character, Huli Jing nevertheless gradually becomes one of the most popular characters of many writers and screenwriters, not only in China but also in many other countries.
A striking and original example of where the Huli Jing appears is the work of the writer Ken Liu entitled "Good Hunt". The author presents not only a very interesting view of the Huli Jing but also explains why the legendary characters of Chinese mythology are gradually disappearing from the memory of the Chinese people.

In addition to literary works, Huli Jing is quite often encountered in Chinese cinema, as an episodic character or a protagonist. One of the most striking images of a werewolf fox can be considered the film "Painted Skin (畫皮)", where the main character is Huli Jing and must eat men's hearts to maintain her youth and beauty. This film is based on the story of Pu Songling and is one of the key works of cinema and modern Chinese culture, which fully reveals the tragedy of the werewolf fox.

In addition, Huli Jing is featured in a fairly large number of Chinese television series, each of which gives its own view of what character Huli Jing should be.

Quite a lot of information about werewolf foxes can be obtained from the TV series "The Legend of the Nine-Tailed Fox" released in 2016. The main interest here is not only a rather vivid description of the Huli Jing, which according to the plot are one family and are forced to seek and return to their place the sacred fruit from the magic garden. This, perhaps, is an attempt to provide an explanation of the true nature of werewolf foxes, who for a long time rushed from good to evil.

Summing up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the first Chinese dynasties, the image of werewolf foxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love.

To sum up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the ancient Chinese dynasties, the image of werefoxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But further the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The appearance of the Huli Jing, which rushes from good to evil for many years, has been romanticized and transformed, becoming a more positive character, although not devoid of some negative features.

'''2. Kitsune (キツネ) in Japan'''

In Japanese folklore, these animals have great knowledge, long life, and magical abilities. Chief among them is the ability to take shapeshift themselves; the fox, according to legend, learns to do this after reaching a certain age (usually a hundred years old, although in some legends it is fifty). Kitsune usually take the form of seductive beauty, a pretty young girl, but sometimes they turn into men. It should be noted that in Japanese mythology there was a mixture of indigenous Japanese beliefs that characterized the fox as an attribute of the god Inari ("Fox-messenger") and the Chinese, who considered foxes to be werewolves, a genus close to demons.

Other abilities commonly ascribed to kitsune include the ability to take possession of other people's bodies, to breathe out or otherwise create fire, to appear in other people's dreams, and the ability to create illusions so complex that they are almost indistinguishable from reality. Some of the legends go further, talking about kitsune with the ability to warp space and time, drive people crazy, or take on such inhuman or fantastic forms as trees of indescribable height or the second moon in the sky.

Kitsune are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari himself is sometimes depicted as a fox. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky.

Kitsunes are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari is sometimes depicted as a fox by himself. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

A kitsune can have up to nine tails. In general, it is believed that the older and stronger the foxes are, the more tails they have. Some sources even claim that a kitsune grows an extra tail every hundred or thousand years of its life. However, foxes found in fairy tales almost always have one, five, or nine tails. When kitsune are given nine tails, their fur turns silvery, white, or gold.

'''3. Kumiho (구미호) in Korea'''

Kumiho - (구 "ku" - nine, 미 "mi" - tail, 호 "ho" - fox - "fox with nine tails") is a folklore animal, the fox of which is first mentioned in the era of Gojoseon. According to legends, only a fox that lives for a thousand years can become 구미호. One of her superpowers is transforming into a beautiful girl. Although in myths there are also references to the becoming of a charming young man. In this form, the mythical animal fell in love with the opposite sex, and then ate their liver (according to some beliefs, and the heart). Why exactly the liver? We can say that the liver contains human energy, that is, we eat and receive the energy that our liver stores.

In a later period, kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever. There are several ways: 구미호 will not eat human flesh and kill for a thousand days. The second option is to eat the liver of a thousand men over a thousand years. The third - will live in a cave without sunlight, eating only wormwood and garlic. And also, if the person who recognized her as 구미호 in human form, keeps this secret for ten years.

===Terms and Expressions===

Shape shifter – 成精

Creature –生物

Seductive –诱人的

Damnation –诅咒

Metaphor –隐喻

Ascribe –属性

Indigenous –土着

Deity – 反面人物

Liver – 肝脏

===References===

1. Pu Song-ling. (2008). Fox charm. Monks-wizards. // Eastern literature. –2008. - P.280.

2. Liu, Ken. (2012). Good Hunting.// Strange Horizons. - 2012. - p. 431.

3. Kang Xiaofei. (2006). The cult of the fox: Power, gender and popular religion in late imperial and modern China//Columbia University Press. – New York, 2006. – Pp.269.

===Questions===

1. What was the attitude towards the Huli Jing in Ancient China?

2. Can we characterize Kitsune as a positive or negative character?

3. Could Kumiho become human forever?

===Answers===

1.Initially, in ancient China, Huli Jing was perceived in a negative context. Only later, towards the Middle Ages, the attitude towards them changed and people began to perceive them as victims of circumstances.

2.In Japanese mythology, Kitsune was not unambiguously good or bad creatures.

3. In a later period, Kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever.
References ..................

==Chinese Characters - Gu Dongfang 顾东方 - 202070080635 - Interpretation 英语口译==
===Chinese Characters===

===Origin===

Chinese characters, also known as Hanzi (漢字) are one of the earliest forms of written language in the world, dating back approximately five thousand years.According to legend, Chinese characters were invented earlier by Cangjie (c. 2650 B.C.E.), a bureaucrat under the legendary emperor, Fu Hsi. The legend tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu (today Shanxi) when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic system called zì—Chinese characters. It was said that on the day the characters were born, Chinese heard the devil mourning, and saw crops falling like rain, as it marked the beginning of civilization, for good and for bad.（Boltz, William G. 2003）

===Evolution of Chinese characters===
[[File:Character_Yuu_Semi.jpg|160px|thumb|right|A Dinging Table]]
Chinese characters from the earliest Chinese hieroglyphs to today’s simple characters have undergone through a very long process of development which can be divided into two periods: ancient writing and modern writing. Associated with these two periods, Chinese characters had experienced several times of evolution into many different script forms. Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC) is the earliest systematic form of Chinese characters inscribed on animal bones and tortoise shells. Then Chinese characters evolved through the bronze script of the Zhou Dynasty (1066–256 century BC), seal scrip in the late Zhou Dynasty and Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), official script in the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) and regular script. Based on pictographs, Chinese characters gradually developed from the form of drawings to strokes and from complex to simple ones.(Wang Xianchun 2002)

===Ancient Chinese characters===

====Oracle bone script====

Oracle bone script (Chinese: 甲骨文, Pinyin: jiăgŭwén) is the inscription on animal bones and tortoise shells of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC). It was first excavated by the local farmers in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province and was sold as a kind of traditional Chinese medicine called “long” (dragon bones).

====Bronze script====

In the “Age of Bronze Ware” of China during the period of Shang and Zhou Dynasties, bronze ware was cast as a container, and most often as the sacrificial vessels to inscribe great events such as sacrifice, battle results, trade of slaves, etc. in a style just like the oracle bone script. In the Shang Dynasty, the inscriptions on bronze ware had very few characters, the form of which is extremely close to that of the oracle bone script. The size, complexity, formation of the Chinese characters are inconsistent. However, in the Zhou Dynasty, the characters in bronze inscriptions were simpler, and the size and formation were more fixed. The bronze inscriptions looked like drawings but had made significant progress from pictographic forms to block-shaped linear words we use today.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

====Seal script====
Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) begun to be used in Qin State. This script was usually written on bamboo slips and pieces of silk or inscribed on rocks and stones. Owing to the regular and symmetric structure, rounded and graceful lines, it is deemed to be the most beautiful style of characters in ancient China by calligraphers. It is still used for inscribing names on a seal today. There are two kinds of seal script: large or great seal script and lesser or small seal script.The large seal script (Chinese: 大篆, Pinyin: dàzhuàn) is a traditional reference to all types of Chinese writing systems used before the Qin Dynasty. However, due to the lack of research achievements and precision, scholars often avoid the large seal script, instead of using more specified terms to the examples of writing. The large seal script was widely used in many vassal states in the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC).After the Qin State conquered the other six states and established the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), Emperor Qinshihuang unified characters in order to strengthen his control. Based on the Large Seal script and rearranging the variant forms of characters in each state, the unified characters were decreed, called lesser or small seal script (Chinese: 小篆, Pinyin: xiăozhuàn) which was the official style of characters in Qin Dynasty used for all the documents of the government. It was the result of the first extensive simplification and standardization of Chinese characters. Compared with the oracle bone script and bronze script, in the lesser seal script, the forms of characters were simpler, the writing method was consistent, and the character pattern was more orderly.
The Ancient Writing Period, from the earliest known oracle bone script to the development of the seal script, lasted about 1,160 years. And the lesser seal script marked the end of the ancient Chinese characters.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) began to be used in Qin State.
and all of the above three points ignored the quote, please add them up.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Modern characters===
====Clerical script====

After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people.Because of its lengthened and curved lines, it took more time to write.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Regular script====

Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people generation after generation even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage.

Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people for generations even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage. （ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
===Formation of Chinese characters===

====Pictograms====

Contrary to popular belief, pictograms make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include 日 (rì) for "sun," 月 (yuè) for "moon," and 木 (mù) for "tree."

====Pictophonetic compounds====

Also called semantic-phonetic compounds, or phono-semantic compounds, this category represents the largest group of characters in modern Chinese. Characters of this sort are composed of two parts: a pictograph, which suggests the general meaning of the character, and a phonetic part, which is derived from a character pronounced in the same way as the word the new character represents.Examples are 河 (hé) river, 湖 (hú) lake, 流 (liú) stream, 冲 (chōng) riptide, 滑 (huá) slippery. All these characters have on the left a radical of three dots, which is a simplified pictograph for a water drop, indicating that the character has a semantic connection with water; the right-hand side in each case is a phonetic indicator.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
====Ideograph ====

Also called a simple indicative, simple ideograph, or ideogram, characters of this sort either add indicators to pictographs to make new meanings, or illustrate abstract concepts directly. For instance, while 刀 (dāo) is a pictogram for "knife," placing an indicator in the knife makes 刃 (rèn), an ideogram for "blade." Other common examples are 上 (shàng) for "up" and 下 (xià) for "down." This category is small, as most concepts can be represented by characters in other categories.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
====Logical aggregates====

Also translated as associative compounds, characters of this sort combine pictograms to symbolize an abstract concept. For instance, 木 (mu) is a pictogram of a tree, and putting two 木together makes 林 ,meaning forest. Combining 日 (rì) sun and 月(yuè) moon makes 明(míng) bright, which is traditionally interpreted as symbolizing the combination of sun and moon as the natural sources of light. quote missing--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Associate transformation====

Characters in this category originally didn't represent the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, 考 (kǎo) to verify and 老 (lǎo) old were once the same character, meaning "elderly person," but detached into two separate words. Characters of this category are rare, so in modern systems this group is often omitted or combined with others.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

Also called phonetic loan characters, this category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as 自 (zì), which has lost its original meaning of nose completely and exclusively means oneself, or 萬 (wan), which originally meant scorpion but is now used only in the sense of ten thousand.(Liu Youxin)

===Simplification of Chinese characters===

The use of traditional Chinese characters versus simplified Chinese characters varies greatly, and can depend on both the local customs and the medium. Before the official reform, character simplifications were not officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing of the writer.(简化字的昨天、今天和明天. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2010.)
===Terms and expressions===

1.Oracle Bone Inscriptions 甲骨文

2.Bronze Inscriptions 金文

3.Small seal characters 小篆

4.Official script 隶书

5.Regular script 楷书

6.Cursive writing 草书

7.Cang Jie 仓颉

8.Clerical script 楷书

9.Su Shi 苏轼

10. Wang Xizhi 王羲之

11.Ou Yangxun 欧阳询

12.Yan Zhenqing 颜真卿

13.Pictograms 象形

14. Pictophonetic compounds 指事

15.Ideograph 会意

16.Logical aggregates 形声

17.Associate transformation 转注

18.Borrowing 假借

===Question===
1.How many Chinese characters are there?

2.How many letters are in the Chinese alphabet?

3. How many formations of Chinese characters? What are they?

===Answers===
1. According to the latest statics, there are nearly 91251 Chinese characters recorded .

2. There are 26 letters in Chinese alphabet.

3. Six formations are included in Chinese characters system, and they are Pictograms
Pictophonetic compounds,Ideograph, Logical aggregates, Associate transformation,Borrowing

===References===

1.王显春. 汉字的起源[M]. 学林出版社, 2002.

2.刘又辛. "关于汉字发展史的几个问题(上)." 语文建设 12(1998):34-37.

3.Boltz, William G. 2003. The origin and the development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental series), v. 78. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. ISBN 0940490188

4.Chinese Characters, Chinese Culture and Chinese Mind . Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia, https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/12-Yuxin-Jia-Xuerui-Jia.pdf,2005.

==Handcraft - Chinese Knots - Guan Qinqing 管钦清 - Student No.20207080586 - 英语笔译==

===A.Chinese Knots===

====1.A Brief Introduction about Chinese Knots====

The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.It originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, to the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft.The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronzes of the Warring States Period.（Li Ku 2016，125）

The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization. It
originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, into the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft. The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronze of the Warring States Period.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now,Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decoration and aesthetics,which
earned the knot its name.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002,38）

The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now, Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decorations and aesthetics, which
earned the knot as its name.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The Classification of Chinese Knots====

There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）,Good Luck Knot（吉祥
结）,Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）,Sauvastika Knot（万字结）,Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）,Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）,Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）,Caisson Celling Knot（藻井
结）,Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.（Li Ku 2016，125）

There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot. They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）, Good Luck Knot（吉祥
结）, Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）, Sauvastika Knot（万字结）, Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）, Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）, Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）, Caisson Celling Knot（藻井
结）, Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots,which are the Double Coin Knot,the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot.

Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots, which are the Double Coin Knot, the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1.The Double Coin Knot=====

Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture,politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views on coins are not limited on their prices but value, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. Money in China not only represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. Every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money".（ Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，40）

Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture, politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views on coins are not limited on their prices but values, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. Money in China not only represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. On every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money". --[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, for the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes "good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc. （Li Ku 2016，126）

Therefore, for the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes "good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.The Good Luck Knot=====

As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and is also one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.
And the knot shape is beautiful,varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.（Wu Hongfang 2004,120）

As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.
And the knot shape is beautiful, varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3.The Pan Chang Knot=====

Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people. Pan Chang (盘长） is a symbol of the origin of all things, and is one of the most important basic knots. It is
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，44）

Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people.As is a symbol of the origin of all things, Pan Chang (盘长）is one of the most important basic knots. It is
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The Knitting Method of Chinese Knots====

The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots.The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots ,so as to make a group of varied knots.（Xu Xing 2004,46）

The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots. The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots, so as to make a group of varied knots.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then determine its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art.（Xu Xing 2004,47）

The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art. --[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Knots====

Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of
rope and thread.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of
Dragons.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,44）

Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of
rope and thread. In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of
Dragons.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.

Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.Comparisons between Chinese Knots and Cross Necklaces====

=====5.1.Different Cultural Connotations=====

From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot generally have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace,however, is symbolic of
Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient
Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners.Therefore,such cross
ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,45）

From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace, however, is symbolic of Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners. Therefore,such cross ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====5.2.Different Shapes=====

Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have
different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.（Xu Xing 2004,47）

Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====6.References====

*Li Ku 李库. (2016). 符号学视角下的中国结解读 [The Analysis of Chinese Knots from the Perspective of Semiology ]. ''艺海'' Yi Hai (08) 125-126.

*Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 李立芳，孙建君. (2002). ''民间绳结'' [Folk Knots]. Wuhan: Hubei Fine Arts Publishing House 湖北美术出版社.

*Xu Xing 许星. (2004). 路论中国结 [On the Chinese Knots]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (02) 46-47.

*Wu Hongfang 邬红芳. (2004). 中国结的意象美学特征 [The Rhetorical-Beauty of Chinese Knots]. ''装饰'' Decoration (09) 120-121.

*Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian王眯珠,孙荪,曲洪建. (2014). 怀旧心理与创新意识对中国结的影响分析[The Analysis of the Impact on Chinese Knots from Reminiscence and Consciousness of Innovation ]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (11) 43-50.

===B. Terms and Expressions===

Double Coin Knot 双钱结

Good Luck Knot 吉祥结

Chinese Button Knot 纽扣结

Sauvastika Knot 万字结

Oxalis Knot 酢浆草结

Pan Chang Knot 盘长结

Round Brocade Knot 团锦结

Caisson Celling Knot 藻井结

Cross Knot 十字结

Ping Knot 平结

tie the knot 永结同心

luck money 压岁钱

the bishop's identity 主教职权

===C. Questions===

1. What is the Chinese knot?

2. Do you know the names of the main Chinese knots? What are they?

3. What do "绳" and "结" mean in Chinese culture?--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 13:04, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.

2.There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot,Good Luck Knot,Chinese Button Kno,Sauvastika Knot,Oxalis Knot,Pan Chang Knot,Round Brocade Knot,Caisson Celling Knot,Cross Knot and Ping Knot.

3.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of "knot", which means reunion and happiness.

==Literature, Chinese Mythology, Guirou, Barthelemy, Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies 201921080010==
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the right order of your title should be category, topic, name, student number

[[File:Chinese Mythology.jpg|thumb|right|Panku]]

===Introduction===

The Chinese’s life is full of mythological traditions such as, the creation of universe, science, literature, philosophy, dragons, tortoises, phoenixes, unicorns, birds, and flowering fruit trees etc. This myth is characterized by the interaction of the pros and cons, yin and yang, good and evil, light and dark, male and female, heaven and earth, strong and weak and so forth. Panku was an important figure in Chinese mythology, the first living being and the creator of universe in some versions of Chinese mythology.(Su Shuyang 2010, 2). In world mythology; every peoples have it own myths, different fairy tales, but there is some similarities in common.

===A. Panku Created the World===

In the beginning, the world didn’t exist; there wasn’t sky, earth, water, animals, birds, plants, human, in other word, the universe was empty. The force of universe was concentrated inside a mysterious egg. This egg, after growing many years, it becoming a big form of ball and finally give birth to Panku. Panku, who was deeply sleeping in peace in his eggshell for eighteen thousand years, finally awaken by the chaos of the exterior movement and try to calm down. Therefore, the sky and the earth were created. His body was well-formed with giant muscular and the size of his body was about ninety thousand li (about thirty thousand miles), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).

At that moment the sky and the earth was very close and Panku couldn’t fully stand on his limbs, then Panku pushed the sky with his two hands to farther away from the sky. As time was passing, the sky and earth become farther from each other and the size of Panku increasing within. The size of Panku became enormous, 90,000 "li" (45,000 kilometer) was the high distance between the sky and the earth, that is why today we talk about “ Nine- Layer Sky.” For many centuries Panku pushed the sky with all the forces of his body to avoid the chaos, hence, he cried for help but no one helped him because he was alone in the world. He struggled for ten thousand years until the sky and earth was completely separated into the forces of yin (dark) and yang (light), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).
Slowly, he became weaker and older, and then he felt down on the ground and his body became a mighty crash. Thus, his right eye became the moon and his left eye became the sun; his head and limbs became mountains; his blood vessels became seas and rivers, his flesh became fertile lands; his hair became trees, grass, flowers; his teeth and bones became treasures (gold, metals, silver, copper); his sweat and tear represent the rain; his voice represent thunder and lightning and his breath represent winds and clouds. Finally; he finished his work, Panku, the creator of the world was dead and left behind him a landscape.

===B. NuWa Created Human Beings===

[[File:Picture 2.jpg|thumb|right|Fushi and Nuwa]]

Nuwa, was created out of earth from Panku flesh, was a goddess in Chinese mythology or viewed as old grandmother with a body of snake and human face. She was the creator and ancestor of human beings who appeared in the world after Pangu’s death (Su Shuyang 2010, 5).

As she was the only human living beings in the world, by the passing time, she felt lonely and decided to create human to her image in order to feel more comfortable to her world. Thus, she was seated down thinking about her new project of creating human beings and finally she got an idea. Then she created human beings by kneading mud with human forms and then these “mud figures” became alive. They started walking, speaking, sing, dancing, laughing and endowed with a human beings capacity (Su Shuyang 2010, 5, 6). Nuwa was very happy with her news creatures who surrounding him by crying our Mum. Then, she continued to create days and nights during a long period until she got tired. Hence, they were spread out everywhere; on the mountains, on the hills, near the rivers, on the straight spaces etc.

During a long period of years, Nuwa and her creatures were living together without any particular distinction about man and woman and any marriage. As time was passing; people were getting old and dying one after other, so, Nuwa started to worry about her offspring, what the world will be after all the men would have died. Nuwa then divided men and women and taught them marriage and how to reproduce between couples in order the lineage of mankind will never end. She gave her best wishes and advises to human beings, and since then, people continue to marry and give birth.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:09, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the source is missing

===C. Fushi Taught the People===

In Chinese mythology, it is generally said that the rulers were half-gods and half humans and they could change their shapes of state, either in animal or in human being. According to Chinese myths; the rulers didn’t die, when their time on the earth expired they ascended to the heavens to have a rest. Fushi was the first who taught to people how to survival on the earth such as: hunting, using fire, writing etc. (Irene Dea Collier,2001, 33). In some stories Fushi was the husband of Nuwa, whereas in some other it wasn’t. Anyway they are an important figures of Chinese civilization .

Fushi noticed that the new world (people) couldn’t support to the difficulties of the life and decided to help them thanks to his supernatural powers. He taught them how to make a fish net by twisting plants fibers and form ropes. With these ropes, he wove a fish net to fish fishes in water and feed people, and with these ropes also people could across mountain peaks to search food. Then, before people were eating raw meat or fish but Fushi showed them how to use fire by twirling two willow sticks together. Moreover, Fushi taught them many things including agriculture, breeding, security, music, healing and many else. As time was passing; Fushi getting old, and he knew that he could not live for ever , then he decided to create a system of writing "trigrams", in order people can learn and remember about his teachings for better life. He designed some kind of marks onto turtle shells, bamboo sticks and animal bones which became later words and numbers (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35, 36). This "trigrams" was also a mean to interpret future and consult oracle about the right ways to follow.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:24, 20 December 2020 (UTC)to write the in the way of (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35-36),that's better.

Finally, Fushi gave his last gift (music) in order people can live in harmony and peace after him. So, Fushi taught them how to make musical instrument and use it, a "pipa" (lute), (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 39).That is why, music has a great importance in Chinese history. Each time we play music, it reminds us to Fushi great teachings. Fushi’s time took end on the earth and finally he ascended to heavens hoping that his disciples (humans) live in peace.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the source is missing.

===D. Water War===

Territorial conquest or extension of a territory was a preoccupation of each ruler since the beginning of the world and still now is one of the sources of conflicts in the world. So, Gong, god of water fought against Zurong, god of fire to extend his territory. Historically, both have terrible tempers and described as a very big giants with different shapes, Gong shown with a snake’s body and a human face with red hair. Meanwhile Zurong shown with a massive human body with broad shoulders, red skin, and a red beard (Irene Dea Collier 2001,44).

Gong poked the earth with bouts of rain and floods which caused damages included on people, houses, animals, trees and many others living beings. People and others gods asked him to stop destroying but Gong remained pitiless and severe to their inquiries. Zurong, god of fire who ruled the earth in peace before Gong, finally intervened to stop him. So Zurong challenged Gong to regain the control of the earth. Firstly, they started to wrestle on the sky for many days, as both of them were using their supernatural powers, the sky shook with thunder, and lightning flashed across the sky. Then, they got down in the earth to continue fighting but fortunately Gong and his army were defeated and all the people and gods rejoiced Gong’s defeat. Since then, the world is full of conflicts and insecurities (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48, 49).--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:22, 20 December 2020 (UTC)to write the in the way of (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48-49),that's better.

In summary, like many mythologies, Chinese mythology has been recorded in oral form in literature from various regional and cultural traditions. China is the home of many mythological traditions which involves the creation of world, gods, deities, supernatural powers, culture, people, houses, cooking writing, ancestors etc.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the source is missing.

===E. Terms and Expressions===

Chinese Mythology 中国神话

Panku 盤古

Yin/Yang 陰陽 / 阴阳

Nuwa 女媧

Fushi 伏羲

Water War 水战

===F. Questions===

1. Why an egg a good symbol for the beginning of the world?

2. Why Nuwa decided to create human beings?

3. What did Fushi taught to people?

4. What was the cause of Gong and Zurong’s war and who won?

===G. Answers===

1. Because egg is the symbol of life and many creatures are born from the eggs, even its physical form is round like the world and it contains necessary elements to create a life.

2. Firstly, for companionship and secondly to guarantee her offspring by teaching them the importance of marriage and how to feed and raise their children. She also wanted to humans to live independently without help of god.

3. He taught to people how to live conveniently such as: fishing, how to make fire, cooking food and meat with fire, oracle consulting, and how to make and use lute.

4. Gong wanted to extend his territory which resulted to water damage and Zurong intervened and defeated him by wrestling.

===References===

1. Su Shuyang. (2010).''CHINA: Insight Traditions and Culture''.(Youth Edition). DOLPHIN BOOKS China International Publishing Group.

2. Irene Dea Collier. (2001). "Chinese Mythology". Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data.

3. https://pic.17qq.com/uploads/ijbphegbibz.jpeg

4. https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Pangu-lifting-heaven-picture.jpg--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 13:08, 15 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 06:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the way of reference-listing is not standard.

==Gods and Immortals - Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587 英语笔译==

===Chinese gods and immortals===

====Chinese mythology system====

Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, p. 71 )

Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or literature records, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, 71 )--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, p.4)

Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, 4)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, pp. 34-40)

The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of human or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, 34-40)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, pp. 27-28)

Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, 27-28)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, p37)

At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, 37)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān====

Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)

Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)

There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Eight immortals====

The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 40-45)

The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang, 1987 40-45)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (呂洞賓), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (張果老), Lan Caihe (藍采和), Li Tieguai (李鐵拐), Zhongli Quan (鍾離權), Han Xiangzi (韓湘子), Cao Guojiu (曹國舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50)

The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (吕洞宾), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (张果老), Lan Caihe (蓝采和), Li Tieguai (李铁拐), Zhongli Quan (钟离权), Han Xiangzi (韩湘子), Cao
Guojiu (曹国舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙過海，各顯神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)

The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙过海，各显神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

immortals 仙

mythology 神话，神话学

cosmology 宇宙论，宇宙观

monolithic 整体（式）的

the Battle of Zhuolu 涿鹿之战

pantheistic 泛神论的

polytheistic 多神论的

Three Pure Ones 三清

anthropomorphic 人格化的

tutelary 守护神

deity 神

Buddha 佛

Shakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Amitabha 阿弥陀佛

Amitāyus 无量寿佛

celestial 天的

Bodhisattva 菩萨

Pure Land 极乐世界

vessels 法器

Covert Eight Immortals 暗八仙

Taoist 道家的，道士

===Questions===

1. What are the topics of the Ancient mythology?

2. What are the differences among shén, dì and xiān?

3. What do the Eight immortals represent respectively?

===Answers===
1.The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths，which can be divided into four categories--the creation myths, myths of heroes, myths about Tribal war, and myths about human and nature.

2. shén and dì corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". The latter term 仙 xiān , refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".

3.Lü Dongbin, He Xiangu, Zhang Guolao, Lan Caihe, Li Tieguai, Zhongli Quan, Han Xiangzi and Cao Guojiu are representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble respectively.

===References===

[1]Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng (2014). Marxism and Religion. Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.

[2]Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

[3]Bai Yang. Chinese Huamn History. Time Literature & Art Press, 1987.

[4]Olson, Stuart Alve (2002). Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun. Bear & Company.

[5]Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism

[6]Hu Yanan. From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty [D].Harbin Normal University,2020.

[7]Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality. Sussex Academic Press.

[8]Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press,1987.

[9]Little, Stephen (2000). Taoism and the Arts of China. The Art Institute of Chicago.

[1]Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng. (2014). ''Marxism and Religion.'' Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.

[2]Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). ''Handbook of Chinese Mythology''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

[3]Bai Yang. (1987). ''Chinese Huamn History''. Time Literature & Art Press.

[4]Olson, Stuart Alve. (2002). ''Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun''. Bear & Company.

[5]Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism

[6]Hu Yanan.(2020). ''From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty'' [D].Harbin Normal University.

[7]Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). ''An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality''. Sussex Academic Press.

[8]Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. (1987). ''A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals''. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press.

[9]Little, Stephen (2000). ''Taoism and the Arts of China.'' The Art Institute of Chicago.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588 MTI==
[suggestion:Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588, here, your major is missing.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Classical Prose Movement of late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty===

====Introduction====

“The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty in China, also known as the Classical Prose Movement, is a movement with the style reform as its surface and Confucianism Renaissance as its depth.” (Li Shufang 2003, 1-3) The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty. This movement took clarity and precision as priorities, and it stood against the florid pianwen or parallel prose style that had been popular starting from the Han Dynasty. Parallel prose had a rigid structure and was criticized for being overly ornate at the expense of content. Therefore, Han Yu, together with Liu Zongyuan, launched this movement to make a difference so that they can revive Confucianism and promote their political thoughts. This movement had a tendency to follow the spirit of pre-Qin prose rather than to imitate it directly. People used elements of colloquial language to make their writings more direct. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 1)
[suggestion:……and Confucianism Renaissance as its deep. Here, "deep" may be replaced by "depth".
The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, (Here, you can add a word "and")it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Development====

The Classical Prose Movement went through three stages. The first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan who were not only writers but also theorists, forming the basis of the movement. Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement and were keen to teach young people so that the movement could achieve further development and then revive the Confucianism. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-18)
[suggestion:(Here, "Both" can be replaced by "They both".)Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. Furthermore, the government only allowed people to use pianwen for official use, so those who want to be officials had to learn that style. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 59-61)
[suggestion:However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. (Here, this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may change the word "writing" into "wrote".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

After that, Ouyang Xiu once again advocated the classical prose in the Song Dynasty. As many people were dissatisfied with the florid piantiwen style, the Classical Prose Movement reached another peak during that period. This movement is consequently also called the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty. (Song Juan 2005, 62-65)

====Representatives====

'''1.Han Yu'''

Han Yu (768–824), courtesy name Tuizhi, is also known for his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. He was born in present-day Mengzhou, Henan, he was a Chinese prose writer, poet, and philosopher who influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism. Due to his influence on the Chinese literary tradition, he is described as “Comparable in stature to Dante, Shakespeare or Goethe”. Meanwhile, he is often considered to be among China’s finest prose writers. Ming Dynasty scholar Mao Kun ranked him first in the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song"，and Su Shi, another Chinese poet, once praised that “His prose reversed the literary decline of eight dynasties”. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-17)
[suggestion:Han Yu (768 – Here, you may delete the space.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC) 824), courtesy name Tuizhi, also known his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. (And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Han Yu wrote a large volume of works, which includes over 700 poems and nearly 400 proses. He is especially famous for his ''On Teachers'', which says “A teacher is one who passes on the truth, imparts knowledge and solves puzzles”. This persuasive prose is short but well structured, and it has a strong appeal to people, which also has a positive impact on youth education. (Fan Aiju, Li Wei 2014, 124-125)

'''2.Liu Zongyuan'''

Liu Zongyuan (773–819), courtesy name Zihou, is also known by his art names He Dong Xian Sheng or Liu He Dong, was a Chinese litterateur, philosopher, politician and poet who lived during the Tang Dynasty. And Liu was born in present-day Yongji, Shanxi. Along with Han Yu, they were called Han Liu. Besides that, he has been regarded as one of the “Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song”, which also includes Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu. Liu's best-known travel pieces are the ''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou''. And one of his most famous poems is "Jiangxue". (Yang Shengli 2020, 42-44)
[suggestion:(773 – Here, you may delete the space. 819);(And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.Ouyang Xiu'''

Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), courtesy name Yong Shu, is also known by his art names Zuiweng and Liu Yi Jushi. He was a Chinese essayist, historian, poet, calligrapher and even a politician of the Song Dynasty. Being a much-celebrated writer, both among his contemporaries and in subsequent centuries. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56)
[suggestion:(1007 – Here, you may delete the space. 1072);(And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Xiu was in charge of the writing of the ''New Book of Tang'', and he also wrote the ''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' independently, the only book in the Twenty-Four Histories to have been written in private by a single author. As a poet, he was a noted writer of both the shi and ci genres. But it was his prose writings like ''Zuiweng Tingji'' that won him the greatest acclaim. The poem's most well-known line is: The Old Toper cares not for the wine, his interest lies in the landscape, an idiom still used in modern Chinese to describe someone with an ulterior motive. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56-57)

Except for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu, there were many other representatives of this movement. For example, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zeng Gong and Wang Anshi also made great contributions to the Classical Prose Movement. Considering their influences, they were also listed as Eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 82-83)
[suggestion:Except(Here, you may change "Except" into "Besides".) for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu,……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Masterworks====

Under the influence of the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty, there appeared a large volume of masterpieces, which have a far-reaching influence on later ages. Except for the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu, other works like ''Shang Zhongyong'' written by Wang Anshi, ''On Jia Yi'' and ''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' by Su Shi, were also considered the representative works of this movement. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 73-78)
[suggestion:Except for(Here, you may change "Except for" into "Besides".) the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu,……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Influence====

The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty is a milestone during the development of Chinese ancient prose, it has a profound influence on the later schools of literature like Tang-Song School in the Ming Dynasty and Tong Cheng school in the Qing Dynasty. Besides that, it also helped to lay a solid foundation of prose in China, and acted as a fine example for later scholars. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 85-86)

====Terms and Expressions====

The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty 唐宋八大家

Classical Prose Movement 古文运动

''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou'' 《永州八记》

''On Teachers'' 《师说》

''New Book of Tang'' 《新唐书》

''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' 《新五代史》

''Zuiweng Tingji'' 《醉翁亭记》

''Shang Zhongyong'' 《伤仲永》

''On Jia Yi'' 《贾谊论》

''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' 《赤壁赋》

====Questions====

1. Who were the first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement?

2. What does the Classical Prose Movement mean?

3. What's political and religious purposes of the Classical Prose Movement?

====Answers====

1. The first promoters of this movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.

2. The Classical Prose Movement refers to the cultural reform movement which promotes Gu Wen and opposes pianwen in late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty.

3. The reason why Confucious scholars promoted this movement is that they wanted to combat the influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the emperors. Besides that, this movement is also an effective tool to expose the reality of corruption and weakness in the central government.
[suggestion: The reason what…….(Here, you may change "what" into "why".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

Fan Aiju, Li Wei 范爱菊, 李伟. (2014). 唐代文豪韩愈的文学造诣 [The literary achievements of Han Yu in the Tang Dynasty] 兰台世界 ''Lantai World'' (21) 124-125.

Li Shufang. (2003). 古文运动的社会背景 [The Social Background of Sport of Ancient Chinese Prose]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学 (12) 1-3.

Nie Yongqing 聂永清. (2007). 重读欧阳修 [Rethinking of Ouyang Xiu] 当代江西 ''Dang Dai Jiangxi'' (02) 56-57.

Qian Dongfu 钱东父. (1979). 唐宋古文运动 [''The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty''] Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Song Juan 宋娟. (2005). 古文运动、科举与“唐宋八大家” [Movement of the Ancient Chinese Prose, Imperial Examination and “Eight Great Writers in Tang and Song Dynasty”]. Mudanjiang: Mudanjiang Normal University 牡丹江师范学院 (02) 62-65.

Yang Shengli 杨胜利. (2020). “河东先生”柳宗元 [Liu Zongyuan:He Dong Xian Sheng]. 支部建设 Zhi Bu Jian She (08) 42-44.

Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (1996). 唐宋八大家论 [Talking of Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song]. Shanghai: Zhong Hua Book Company 中华书局 (06) 35-38.

==The tradition of Red Envelope and Lucky Money - HA, THI THU HANG - 201921080008 - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets-design.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Red Enverlop]]

===The Chinese Red Envelope and Lucky Money Tradition===

In Chinese and other East and Southeast Asian societies, Red Envelopes, also called Red Packets, Lucky Money, or ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ) in Chinese, ''Li shi'' / ''Lìxì'' in Vietnamese are popular monetary gift given during holidays or special occasions or festivals such as weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc in China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and some other Asian countries, especially widely seen during the Lunar New Year Festival. During the Lunar New Year, the adult, parents and grandparents gift with the red envelops for kids, which have money stuffed into. It is a traditional way to wish good luck and share blessings.

The Lucky Money tradition began in the Han Dynasty. Rather than real money, they were small collectibles in the form of coins to ward off evil spirits. Auspicious phrases and symbols were engraved onto the surface. "worldwide peace" ( 天下太平 / ''Tiān xià tài píng''), “longevity and fortune” ( 千秋万岁 / ''Qiān qiū wàn suì''), dragons and phoenixes were common.

These coins were tied together with red string. The practice transitioned to be wrapped in Red Paper and now, put into Red Envelopes.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Legend====

In China, during the Qin Dynasty, the elderly would thread coins with a red string. There was a kind of little demon called ''Sui'' ( 祟 ) in ancient times. Whenever it is on New Year's Eve, it will appear quietly, touching the head of a sleeping child. The child who was being touched will be scared and cry, and also will have a headache. Therefore, in order to prevent against the sui, people in the past did not dare to sleep on New Year's Eve, and all the lights were called ''Shou Sui'' ( 守祟 ).

One tale of the folklore, once upon a time, there was a couple who were over 50 years old had just given birth to a little boy. In that Lunar New Year, 8 fairies visited their house and knew that there would be a monster coming to hurt him. To protect the baby, the 8 faires transformed into 8 coins which were then wrapped in red cloth and laid beside the boy when he was sleeping. Thanks to these coins, which were the fairies, the boy was unharmed by the monster. The old couple was so thankful and gradually everyone in the village knew about the stories. Since then, when Lunar New Year comes, people will give children "red paper wrapped copper money" with a belief that the money will protect children from being harmed.

There are also other legends about this custom related to the son of Yang Guifei of the Tang Dynasty - China and the Qin Dynasty. But in general, the New Year's blessing of the lucky money all originates with the meaning of giving happy money to children, wishing them to grow up their money so they can pass the new age with good things and luck.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Tradition====

The Chinese custom of Lucky Money is called ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ). Chinese people really like red, so the Lucky Money is always red, symbolizing luck and happiness. The Red Envelope is called ''Yāsuìqián'' ( 压岁钱 ), which means "suppressing ghosts money". Those who receive a Red Envelope are wished another safe and pea. Sending Red Envelopes is a way to send good wishes another safe and peaceful year, and luck (as well as money). The amount of money in the Chinese Lucky Money must avoid the number 4 ( 四 / ''si'') and be sealed - that means no 4, 40, or 400 amounts - as the pronunciation of four in Chinese sounds like the word for death ( 死/ ''si''). However, amounts including the number 8 ( 八 / ''ba'') will bring good luck and prosperity ( 发财 / ''fa'').

There are rules on how to properly receive an Envelope. Traditionally, children would kneel to receive their ''Hóngbāo'' from older family members, and this is still practiced in some areas of China. Red Envelopes are also always given and received with both hands, and should never be opened immediately and in the presence of the present-giver. After receiving the Lucky Money, the children have to put it all under the pillow after about a week to open it. The meaning of this is for the Lucky Money to protect the kids from the bad things that can happen in the new year. This is also the source of the traditional Chinese Lucky Money.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Alipay and WeChat Red Envelope'''

[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets.jpg|200px|thumb|Right|Red Envelope - How much to give who - [[https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]]]]

Moving on from the traditional Red Envelope, in the 21st century, many people exchange digital Red Envelopes instead of the traditional paper ones. These are virtual packets of very real cash, transferred directly to friends' and family's smartphones. Users can even send digital ''Hóngbāo'' to their favorite celebrities using apps such as Alipay, WeChat and the Weibo Red Envelope. WeChat Red Packet is an online money transfer with a colorful message via WeChat (a messaging Chinese app). In recent years, it has become popular among young people to send "Red Envelopes" via WeChat as a greeting. It has become a new way to greet friends or relatives during the Chinese New Year period.

While the tradition centers on children, Red Envelopes are given to friends, family, colleagues and many other relatives - and different amounts of money are customary for each relation. For example, parents and grandparents get the most, but employees and even casual acquaintances can expect a Red Envelope.

====Outside of China====

The similar customs have been adopted throughout Southeast Asia and many other countries with sizable populations of Chinese descent. Each country has different ways of Lucky Money and changes over time, but the basic custom of Lucky Money is to want to send wishes of peace to all relatives and friends in the New Year.

In Vietnam, Lucky Money is called ''Lì xì/Tiền mừng tuổi'' and very typical. On the first day of the Lunar New Year - one of the great holidays of the year, both adults and babies wear new clothes to celebrate the New Year relative. After that, the adults will give Lucky Money to the children with the message of good luck, good care and good study. Today, the tradition of Lucky Money in Vietnam is also expanded in the direction that children give Lucky Money to celebrate the age of grandparents and parents. This is a human custom that is increasingly promoted by the Vietnamese people.

In Japan, Lucky Money is called ''Otoshidama''. Unlike other countries, the amount of Japanese Lucky Money depends on the child's age, the relationship of the family. ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes are usually white in color, not as common in red as other countries. The special thing about the Japanese Red Envelopes is that the envelopes are always sealed, symbolizing the privacy, not packaging. Moreover, the name of the person receiving the Lucky Money will be written on the Red Envelope to show respect for the recipient. The message of each ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes is a wish for a warm, peaceful and lucky New Year.

In Korea, Lucky Money is called ''Sabae''. On the New Year's day, children in traditionally dressed families perform the ritual of bowing to their seniors to show gratitude for birth and nurturing. After this ceremony, the children will receive Lucky Money together with wishes for health and peace in the New Year. The Lucky Money in Korea is more diverse than other countries, not only with money but also gold, pearls, gems, etc.

The Lucky Money tradition has also crossed cultural and religious boundaries, and ''Green Envelope-giving'' has even become a practice during the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Fitr across Southeast Asia. It is also widely practiced by the Chinese and Southeast Asian diaspora across the world.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Lucky Money 利市/ Lì shì

Red Envelope 红包/ Hóngbāo

Worldwide Peace 天下太平/ Tiān xià tài píng

Longevity and Fortune 千秋万岁/ Qiān qiū wàn suì

Suppressing Ghosts Money/ Suppressing Sui Money 压岁钱/ Yā suì qián

Sui 祟

Shou Sui 守祟

===Questions===

1. Do you know the origin of giving Lunar New Year's Lucky Money to children?

2. Is the Lucky Money tradition exist in other countries than China?

3. What are the rules on giving-receiving Red Envelopes?

4. On what occasions people giving-receiving Red Envelopes?

5. Do you ever receive a Red Envelope? On what occasion?

===Answers===

1. It began in the Han Dynasty and to protect children from being harmed.

2. Yes. It is very polupar in Vietnam (''Lìxì''), Japan (''Otoshidama''), Korea (''Sabae''), and some other Southeast Asian countries.

3. The giving amount of money must avoid the number 4 that sounds like the word of death in Chinese. The children, after receiving the Red Envelope, do not open it immediatedly and in the presence of the present-giver, but have to put it under the pillow after about a week to open it.

4. Red Envelopes are most commonly associated with New Year, but they also turn up as part of many other occasions as a way of sharing good luck and blessings, like births, weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc.

5. Yes. Red Envelope, or Lucky Money, or ''Lìxì'' is very typical in the Lunar New Year in my country Vietnam.

===References===

Red Envelope[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_envelope]

Fefe Ho - Red Pockets[https://chinesenewyear.net/red-pockets/]

Cindy Tang - Red Envelopes/Packets (Hongbao) - Amount, Symbols and How to Give [https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]

Chinese Red Envelope [https://www.travelchinaguide.com/essential/holidays/new-year/red-envelope.htm]--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Calendar, The 24 Solar Terms - He Changqi 何长琦 student No. and 专业 are missing --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)==

==='''The Twenty-four Solar Terms'''===
==='''The Twenty-four Solar Terms'''===[maybe this should be deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===1. The orgin and development of the twenty-four solar terms===
===1. The Orgin and Development of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

“The twenty-four solar terms” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）

"The 24 solar terms" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）[suggestion:the quotation mark in English and in Chinese should be distinguished.In Chinese, it is “”;in English, it is ""]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: winter solstice, summer solstice, spring equinox and autumn equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature, during the Warring States period, the complete twenty-four solar terms were basically formed, and during the Qin and Han dynasties, the complete twenty-four solar terms system was perfected and formed into today's complete twenty-four solar terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）

By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: winter solstice, summer solstice, spring equinox and autumn equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature in the Warring States period, the complete 24 solar terms were basically formed. During the Qin and Han dynasties, a complete system was perfected and formed into today's complete twenty-four solar terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）[suggestion:the last sentence is too long to read.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:42, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The definition and classification of the 24 solar terms===
===2. The Definition and Classification of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

“The twenty-four solar term” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)

"The 24 solar term" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[suggestion:it will be better if you use Arabic numerals or its English version uniformly in the whole passage; please pay attention to the difference of quotation mark in Chinese and English.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the meddle part of a month is called qi (气). ( Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it. ) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)

A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the middle part of a month is called qi (气). (Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it.) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[maybe there is a wrong word "meddle", it should be "middle" .]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the four solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)

The 8 solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the 4 solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[suggestion:it will be better if a uniform numeral format is used.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Folklore of the 24 solar terms===
===3.Folklore of the 24 Solar Terms===[the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three areas: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.((Ding Yiming. Chang He 2020)) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the twenty-four solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc.

The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three aspects: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the 24 solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc. [suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of Start of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of Start of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of Start of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan. Zou Yating 2020)

These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of the Begining of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of the Begining of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of the Begining of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan, Zou Yating 2020)[suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.Importance and values of of the 24 solar terms===
===4.Importance and Values of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:it will be better if the first letters are capitalized; the "of" should be deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.1 Importance in ancient times===
====4.1 Importance in Ancient Times====[the subtitle should add a mark as "="]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people.

The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people.[suggestion:quotation is missing.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is also the most basic function and value of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humans according to natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)

Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is the most basic function of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humanity in accordance with natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of the people in ancient times. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were not just a time system, but a much more colourful connotation of life, and an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of ancient people. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were more than a time system, they were also a connotation of life, an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立), that is, the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter , have always been important festivals in history. At the time of these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival, which is also known as China's four traditional festivals, along with Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立)-- the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter-- have always been important festivals in history. At these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival. Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and Tomb Sweeping Festival are known as China's four traditional festivals .(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 Values in modern society===
====4.2 Values in Modern Society====[suggestion:it will be better if the first letters are capitalized; the subtitle should add a mark as "="]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation.(Ding Yiming. Chang He 2020)

In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020)[suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It still has its practical values in modern society.Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system with a long history and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations, such as respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

It still has its practical values in modern society.Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations. Specifically, respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, showing filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and reflect the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019) [suggestion:maybe it will be better if "reflect" is deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Lastly, the 24 solar terms are not only a time system, but also a living tradition full of rich connotations, which is an important part of people's lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

===Terms and Expressions===

the Beginning of Spring 立春

Beginning of Autumn 立秋

Rain Water 雨水

End of Heat 处暑

Insects Awakening 惊蛰

White Dew 白露

Spring Equinox 春分

Autumnal Equinox 秋分

Fresh Green 清明

Cold Dew 寒露

Grain Rain 谷雨

First Frost 霜降

Beginning of Summer 立夏

Beginning of Winter 立冬

Lesser Fullness 小满

Light Snow 小雪

Grain in Ear 芒种

Heavy Snow 大雪

Summer Solstice 夏至

Winter Solstice 冬至

Lesser Heat 大暑

Lesser Cold 小寒

Greater Heat 立春

Greater Cold 大寒

===Questions===

1.1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?
1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Where does the 24 solar terms originate from?

3. What are the eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes？

4.When was the 24 solar terms included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List?

5.What are the food customs in the Beginning of Spring?

6.Do you konw any other folklore of the 24 solar terms?

===Answers===

1.Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox.

2.It originated in the Yellow River valley.

3.Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox, Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice

4.In 2016.

5.People eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots.

6.It is said that people should eat dumplings on the Start of Winter. There is a story about the birth of dumplings. According to legend, in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, the "Sage of Medicine", invented the "jiaozi" to treat frostbite patients with frostbitten ears. He cooked mutton, hot peppers and herbs to dispel the cold and warm up the body. He wrapped these ingredients into a dough skin and made them into an ear shape. Since then, people have learned to make the food which became known as "dumpling" or jiaozi. Today there is still a saying that goes "Eat dumplings on Start of Winter Day, or your ears will be frostbitten."

===References===

Yuan Jix. 袁济喜. (2016). "中华思想文化术语(3)”[Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture]. 外语教学与研究出版社”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Belarusian Literature and Arts Press] (Yuan Jix 2016:)

Wang Jiahua. 王加华.（2019.9.20）"China Social Science Network" http://www.cssn.cn/zx/bwyc/201909/t20190920_4974497_1.shtml

Ding Yiming. Chang He. 丁一鸣. 常河（2020.11.17）"Chinanews" http://www.chinanews.com/cul/2020/11-17/9340057.shtml

He Yannan. Zou Yating. 贺亚楠. 邹雅婷. (2020.2.4) “China Daily” https://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/04/WS5e3901a9a3107bb6b579d18d.html

==Literature, Yue Fu - Hu Baihui 胡百辉 202070080590 English Translation==

===Collection of Yue Fu Poetry《乐府诗集》===

====Introduction====

'''1.Brief introduction'''

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name.(Wu Ting 2007, 20)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre-Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name. (Wu Ting 2007, 20)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.About the author'''

Guo Maoqian (1041-1099) was born in Xucheng, Yunzhou, Song Dynasty. He is the grandson of Guo Quan, and the son of Guo Yuanming. Song Shenzong Yuanfeng seven years (1084), Cao joined the army in Henan Province. He wrote a hundred volumes of ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'', which was handed down from generation to generation. (Wu Ting 2007, 22)

'''3.Content introduction'''

It divides Yuefu Poems into 12 categories, including suburban Temple songs, Yan shooting songs, drum songs, horizontal blowing songs, Xianghe songs, etc. In these different kinds of music, the songs of Jiaomiao and yanshe belong to the movements used by the imperial court, and their ideological content and artistic skills are less desirable. There are also some works with poor artistic value. But generally speaking, most of the poems it collects are excellent folk songs and poems written by scholars with old Yuefu titles. In the existing poetry collection, "Yuefu Poetry Collection" is an important book with the most complete collection of all kinds of Yuefu Poetry in the past dynasties. (Wu Ting 2007, 30)

====Masterpieces====

'''1.''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'''''

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife, but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for love freedom and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for free love and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.''Mulan Poetry'''''

''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man, joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality, It has strong artistic appeal.(Wu Ting 2007, 41)

''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man and joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for a reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality. Therefore, it has strong artistic appeal. (Wu Ting 2007, 41)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Evaluation====

'''1.Contributions'''

The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)

The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of the Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105) --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literature history and music history.There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but narrative is attached to lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in the singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literary history and music history. There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but the narrative is attached to the lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.Shortcomings'''

There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' . For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as an ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)

There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''. For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Wu Ting 吴婷.(2007).乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究[D][A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].南昌:南昌大学 Nanchang:Nanchang University (12)20-41.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:06, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

Yu Yizhi 喻意志.(2002).乐府诗集成书研究[D][A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].上海:上海师范大学 Shanghai:Shanghai Normal University (10)105-107.

Wu Ting 吴婷. (2007). 乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究 [A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].Nanchang:Nanchang University 南昌大学 (12) 20-41.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Yu Yizhi 喻意志. (2002). 乐府诗集成书研究 [A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poetry'']. Shanghai: Shanghai Normal University 上海师范大学 (10)105-107.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''《乐府诗集》

Jiaomiao songs郊庙歌辞

Yanshe songs燕射歌辞

Guchui drum songs鼓吹曲辞

Hengchui songs横吹曲辞

Xianghe songs相和歌辞

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' 《孔雀东南飞》

''Mulan Poetry''《木兰辞》--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:24, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.When was Yuefu Poetry compiled？

2.Which institution did "Yuefu" belong to?

3.What are ''The Peacock Flies to Southeast''based on?--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:34, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.In Song Dynasty.

2.It belongs to the institution in charge of music.

3.It is based on a marriage tragedy.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:38, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisines, Eight Major Cuisines in China - Hu Jin 胡瑾 202070080591 英语笔译==

===Eight Major Cuisines of China===

====1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisine====
1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisines--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As early as the Shang and Zhou dynasties, China's food culture began to take shape. At that time, Tai Gongwang was the most representative. In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period under the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, the flavors of North and South dishes showed differences. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the southern cuisine and the northern cuisine formed their own systems. In the Southern Song Dynasty, sweet in south and salty in north was formed. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Shandong Cuisine, Sichuan Cuisine, Cantonese Cuisine, and Su Cuisine became the most influential local dishes at that time, and they were called the "four major cuisines." By the end of the Qing Dynasty, four new local cuisines, Zhejiang Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine, Hunan Cuisine, and Anhui Cuisine, were differentiated and formed, which together constituted the "eight major cuisines" of traditional Chinese cuisine. (Lv Xiaomin 2009, 64)

====2. The Classification of Chinese Cuisines====

China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavor. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted around. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)

China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavors. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1 Shandong Cuisine=====
Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)

Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Besides, Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2 Sichuan Cuisine=====
Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one
of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)

Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical and exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3 Guangdong Cuisine=====
Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables. Many vegetables originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)

Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables, which originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, just bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.4 Fujian Cuisine=====
Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct features are their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)

Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct feature is their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5 Jiangsu Cuisine=====
Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh and sweet and with delicate elegance. Jiangsu Cuisine is well known for its careful selection of ingredients, its meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)

Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh, sweet and delicate. Jiangsu Cuisine is well-known for its careful selection of ingredients, its methodology of meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.6 Zhejiang Cuisine=====
Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)

Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. And Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.7 Hunan Cuisine=====
Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessaries in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)

Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessities in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.8 Anhui Cuisine=====
Anhui Cuisine focuses much more attention on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking method are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)

Anhui Cuisine focuses much more on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking methods are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3. A Comparison of Chinese-Western Diet Culture====

Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. There are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)

Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. So there are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China, but it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)

Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China. But it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)

However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to both their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are also differences in names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)

There are also differences in the names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo Meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

Bi Jiwan 毕继万. (1999). 跨文化非语言交际 [Cross-cultural Nonverbal Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 78-83.

Cai Hua 蔡华. (2009). 试论中西饮食文化的差异 [On the Differences between Chinese and Western Food Culture]. ''邵阳学院学报'' Journal of Shaoyang University 56-67.

Du Xuezeng 杜学增. (1999). 中英文化习俗比较 [Comparison of Chinese and English Cultural Customs]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 212-217.

Lv Xiaomi, Ding Xiao, Dai Yangyong 吕晓敏, 丁骁, 代养勇. (2008). 中国八大菜系的形成历程和背景 [The Formation Process and Background of Eight Major Cuisines in China ]. ''中国食物与营养'' Food and Nutrition in China (10) 62－64．

Shi Hongmei 史红梅. (2009). 地理教学中我国地域饮食文化差异研究 [Study on the Differences of Regional Diet Culture in Geography Teaching in China]. ''河北师范大学'' Hebei Normal University 34-68.

===Terms and Expressions===

pot-stewed fowl 卤味

stewing and simmering 炖，煨

prickly ash 花椒

fermented soybean 豆鼓

Braised Dongpo Pork 东坡肉

Buddha Jumps over the Wall 佛跳墙

Kung Pao Chicken 宫保鸡丁

Bean Sauce Tofu 麻婆豆腐

===Questions===
1. How many types of cuisines are there in china?

2. What’s differences between Chinese and western diets?

3. What is the origin of Dongpo Meat?

===Answers===
1. Eight

2. 1. The western cooking method is simpler than that in China. 2. Western diet pays attention to the nutrition while Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. 3. Western diet is a more rational diet. 4. Westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. 5. Westerners specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. 6. There are also differences in names of dishes.

3. It is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty.

== Paper Cutting - Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪 202070080636 2020英语口译 Interpreting ==

Chinese Paper Cutting 剪纸

===Introduction===

With a long history, papercutting could be dated back to 2000 years ago in China according to the archaeological records. It originated in ancient ancestor worship activities which people pray for their ancestor'''(s)''' and god. Later, with the widespread papercutting technique'''(s)''' and people’s growing love for it, it gradually served as the decorations for the doors, walls, mirrors, lanterns and so on. Nowadays, papercutting has already become an integral part of Chinese traditional culture and serves as a window of the Chinese folk culture. (Jiao 2016: 3)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===History===

The skill of cutting and carving appeared way before the invention of paper, and a number of materials, from the bark, leaves and animal skin, to later silk fabrics, as well as cloth, silk, etc., were cut into certain shapes to decorate, which lay '''(change to laid)''' a solid foundation for the art of papercutting. (Li & Zhang 2015: 7)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As the paper is not easy to preserve, few of the paper works could survive to the modern times. “The earliest such work surviving are five examples dating from the Northern Dynasties period (386-581), unearthed in Turfan（吐鲁番）, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.” (Folk Handicrafts)

In the'''(what)''' dynasty the custom of papercutting began to be popular, and the handicraft man cut paper to different shapes, and each owns its name. Namely, the shape of square was named “Fangsheng”, the flower shape was called “Huasheng”, the people('''add - )''' shaped “rensheng”. Two pieces of “Huasheng”, which were the remains in the Tang Dynasty, are preserved now in Shōsō-in(正仓院) in Japan. (Li & Zhang 2015: 7-8)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

By the Song Dynasty, with the prosperous development of economy and culture, in addition to daily decoration, papercutting was used for crafts such as porcelain and blue calico. (蓝印花布) (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

The art of papercutting became mature in Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. There emerged well designed papercutting works in the Yuan dynasty, and collectors began to collect paper-cutting works as artwork. By the Ming Dynasty, the application of paper-cutting became even wider, with clip gauze lantern (夹纱灯) as an representative. It is a lantern with papercutting clipped in, candlelight reflecting the pattern. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

Since its birth, the art of papercutting has never been interrupted.In its long history, it evolved in art and pottery, printing, dyeing and other art intertwined, being an indispensable part of people’s life. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

===Five Regions===

The distribution area of Chinese folk paper-cutting, according to the historical changes, geography, ecological environment changes, cultural development differences and paper-cutting itself in the aesthetic '''(s)''', style of mutual influence and so on, for a comprehensive consideration, can be divided into five regions. (Wang 2006:106)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Northeast Changbai Mountains area: It mainly covers Changbai Mountain area in Heilongjiang province, Liaoning province. As the birthplace of the nation of Man, the papercutting here herited the culture and customs of Man. (Wang 2006:106)

Yellow river basin area: With the north of Shaanxi '''(maybe Shanxi)''' papercutting as the center, it is simple but more expressive because of its rough lines and designs. (Wang 2006:106)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Yangtze River basin area: It covers papercutting in Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan and Jiangsu provinces. Influenced by folk farming culture and the Confucian culture in the Han dynasty, papercutting in this region is in the rough in shape but bears a sense of delicacy. (Wang 2006:106)

The southeastern coastal area: It is highlighted by the papercutting of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. This region, more affluent. Paper-cutting creation, especially in Zhejiang Jinhua, Guangdong Foshan as the representative, in the history of cultural development, the vein is also more distinct, its aesthetic interest, tends to be elegant and common appreciation(appreciation maybe change to appreciated). (Wang 2006:106)

Southwestern minority areas: It is characterized by papercutting in the minorities in Yunan and Guizhou province'''(s)'''. Many paper cuttings are combined with embroidery patterns. The religious beliefs of this region obviously involved in the art of papercutting. (Wang 2006:107)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Techniques===

There are various ways to make papercutting works, include folding paper-cutting, smoked paper-cutting(熏样剪纸), color-collage paper-cutting, paper-cutting and tongcun paper-cutting , but the most common ones are mono-colored and dot-colored. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)

Mono-colored papercutting refer'''(s)''' to '''(加papercutting)''' cut or curve with a single-colored paper, mostly in red. Since ancient times, the Chinese revered the red, whenever there are grand celebration ceremonies or festivals, red is the main color, featuring warmth, passion and also brightness and happiness. However, mono-colored papercutting is also available in black or other colors, which are used according to different circumstances and situations, among which white papercutting is mostly used as the base sample for embroidery. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Dyed papercutting also called dotted paper cuttings. The paper is mostly Xuan paper, a kind of thin white paper absorbs water easily. Twenty or thirty pieces of such paper are put into pile and the pattern is carved out with a knife. Then the mass of paper is dyed.After the dying process, the colors become rich and elegant, with endless changes and a strong local flavor. The dyed papercutting is mainly found in Hebei, Shanxi and Guangdong province, among which the dotted paper cuttings in Weixian, Hebei is very unique. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)
===Themes===

Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, birds and animals,'''(animals and birds和前面的birds and animals 重复了)''' twelve zodiac animals, '''(pavilions and pavilions这儿也重复啦)''' , totem worship(图腾崇拜), religious belief. Its connection with the major festivals and traditional customs find its expression in every aspects of life.Papercutting is an essential folk activity in the villages. Traditionally, on the 23rd day of the twelfth lunar month, women "drop their hoes and pick up scissors to cut papers"; on the 28th, flowers are pasted on the windows. On this day, every family paste window decorations, new year’s pictures and Spring Festival couplets (春联) to create an lively environment for the new year. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is the rural working women who are the majority of creator'''s''' of the delicate papercutting. When they were five or six years old or seven or eight years old, they began to follow their mothers and grandmothers to learn paper-cutting. Mothers would pass on their treasured paper-cutting patterns to their daughters and daughters-in-law as family heirlooms. This is how China’s folk papercutting has been passed down from generation to generation. They are devoutly devoted to the papercutting that are rich in connotations such as prosperity, peace and good fortune, happiness, '''prosperity here重复啦''' health and longevity. It is the inheritance of this spirit that has enabled the art of paper-cutting to last for thousands of years. (Li & Zhang 2015: 9)--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Wang Minbo 王敏伯. (2006) 中国民间剪纸史[The History of Chinese Folk Paper-cut Arts] 杭州: 中国美术学院出版社 Hangzhou: China Academy of Art Press.

Li Youyou & Zhang JIngjuan 李有有&张静娟. (2015) 剪纸 [paper-cut] 北京中国旅游出版社 Beijing: China Travel & Tourism Press.

Lu Zhongmin. (2002) Folk Handicrafts. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

===Terms and Expressions===

Dyed papercutting 点染剪纸

Mono-colored papercutting 单色剪纸

Shōsō-in 正仓院

smoked paper-cutting熏样剪纸

Spring Festival couplets 春联

totem worship图腾崇拜

Turfan吐鲁番

===Questions===

1. Where was the earliest papercutting found in China?

2. How many regions the distribution of Papercutting can be divided into?

3. Which two types of papercutting are the most common ones?

4. What could be the themes of the papercutting?

===Answers===

1. They were unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

2. Mono-colored papercutting and dyed papercutting.'''(答案和第三题的反了）'''

3. Northeast Changbai Mountains area, Yellow river basin area, Yangtze River basin area, The southeastern coastal area and Southwestern minority areas.'''（同上)'''

4. Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, birds and animals, animals and birds, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions and pavilions, totem worship, religious belief.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing - Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮 202070080592 英语笔译==

===The Chinese Medical Sage - Zhang Zhongjing===

Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who is respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)

Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who was respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)

Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw through the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)

This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)

Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)

When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (首都医药 2003, 40)

There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in the Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (首都医药 2003, 40)

When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about those poor people. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (首都医药 2003, 40)

Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about the poor. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the day of the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (首都医药 2003, 40)

Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrap the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (首都医药 2003, 40)

In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrapping the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (首都医药 2003, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult man, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)

At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:Zhang_Zhongjing.jpg]]

===References===

(2003). 张仲景故乡的二十四个故事(六) 饺子的来历[J] [Twenty-four Stories of Zhang Zhongjing's Hometown (VI) The Origin of Dumpling]. ''首都医药'' Capital Medicine (17) 40.

Zhang Maoyun 张茂云. (2014). 伤寒杂病论成书年代及仲景生平年代考历[J] [Journal on the Written Time of ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'' and the Lifeyime of Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国中医药现代远程教育'' Chinese Medicine Modern Distance Education of China (04) 19-20.

Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 甄雪燕，王利敏，梁永宣. (2013). “医圣”张仲景[J] ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国卫生人才'' China Health Human Resources (07) 88-89.

Zhang Deli 张德礼. (2019). 心系百姓的“医圣”张仲景[J] [People's Medical Sage Zhang Zhongjing]. ''现代班组'' Morden Group (05) 37.

Tan Rongzhou 覃荣周. (2013). 张仲景对我国医学发展的历史贡献[J] [Zhang Zhongjing's Historical Contribution to the Development of Chinese Medicine]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (07) 55-56.

Zhao Qingxin 赵清新. (1999). 万世医宗张仲景[J] ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''解放军健康'' PLA Health (05) 36.

Tian Yi 天一. (2020). 张仲景:“医圣”之名传天下[J] [Zhang Zhongjing: the Name of "Medical Sage" Spreads all over the World]. ''月读'' Monthly Read (03) 4-13.

===Terms and Expressions===

medical sage 医圣

''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases''《伤寒杂病论》

treatment based on syndrome differentiation/ diagnosis and treatment based on an overall analysis of the illness and the patient's condition 辩证施治

yamen 衙门

Great Cold ( 24th solar term ) 大寒

Slight Cold ( 23rd solar term ) 小寒

look, listen, question and feel the pulse -- four ways of diagnosis 望闻问切

Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup 祛寒娇耳汤

===Questions===

1. What's the honorable title Zhang Zhongjing addressed as?

2. What's the official role Zhang once taken?

3. When would Zhang treat patients for free at yamen?

4. What's the most well-known and important masterpiece Zhang ever write? What's his motive of writing it?

5. What's the relationship between Zhang Zhongjing and dumplings?

===Answers===

1. Chinese Medical Sage.

2. Changsha magistrate.

3. He treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month.

4. ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases.'' Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases.

5. Dumplings are derived from the recipe " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" developed by Zhang Zhongjing.

--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:53, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 10

2020-12-20T04:30:48Z

Chen Jingjing: /* On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].
='''Functional Equivalence'''=

== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==

===Abstract===
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.

===key words===

functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation

===摘要===
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。

===关键字===
功能对等，形式对等，翻译

===Introduction===

As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory.

Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence.

During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.

===Functional Equivalence===
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)

Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”.

The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence.

To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.

In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation.

Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.

===Formal equivalence===

Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167）

Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.

From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged.

Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.

===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.

For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.

Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.

Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.

===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.

====Lexical equivalence====

Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .

Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women.

It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”.
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.

====Syntax equivalence====

Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows:
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。

It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”.
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:
“You’re not a student,are you?”
“Yes, I am.”
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.

====Texual equivalence====

Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context.

“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”
“What trouble?” He was startled.
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.

In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears.
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe.
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.

The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.

====Stylistic equivalence====

Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.

Example: 清明
杜牧
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。
Translation by Wu Juntao:
The Pure Brightness Day
By Du Mu
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”
He points at Apricot Village faraway.

In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.

Translation by Xu Yuanchong:
The Mourning Day
By Du Mu
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers.

In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.

===Conclusion===

Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation.

Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation.

According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张军,2018:114)

===References===

Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.

Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．

Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.

Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.

Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.

Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.

Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.

Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.

Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.

尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．

Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).

UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．

== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==

== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center>
===Abstract===
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in translation of science fiction.

The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the first translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture

===题目===
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例
===摘要===
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。

===关键词===
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化

===Introduction===
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.

In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information.

This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida's functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence are achieved.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）

Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, genre and culture.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===

Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work Toward a Science of Translating. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. （Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,Toward a Science of Translating. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In his book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. （Nida,2004:24）

In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows. Dynamic equivalence is defined as the degree to which the receptors of information in the receptor language react to the information in essentially the same way as the receptors in the source language react to the information (Nida, 2004: 24) Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did" (Nida 1993:118).

Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book Language, Culture and Translation, Nida divides functional equivalence into two levels of categories:the minimal level and the maximum level.The minimal level,as a realistic definition of functional equivalence, is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation conform to (1) the context of the source language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and (3) the recipient language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes verbal comparison between the original and the target text. Functional equivalence involves the reader's response. If the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's reaction to translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===

====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====

Nida and Taber stated that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)

Nida and Taber point out that "translation consists in reproducing the closest natural equivalence of source language information in the receptor language, above all in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: word, sentence, and segment, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of lexis, syntax and discourse (Nida, 2004:12).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====

In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）

In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）

"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)

Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.

Example 2:
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）

"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)

The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered.

The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）

"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)

The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.

The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====

Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）

Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）

The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）

In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）

"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)

We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.

We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".

In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.

In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====

Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）

Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”

老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。

“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”

依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself."

Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.

"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.

Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)

The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.

Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====

Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）

Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====

First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）

Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.

In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.

It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)

"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)

It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.

This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 4:
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)

"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.

In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.2 Dialects=====

Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）

The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.

In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.

In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====

In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）

Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====

The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）

The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 1:
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)

"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.

"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 2:
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)

"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)

The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.

Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 3:

"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)

The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）

The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====

Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）

Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)

"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior.

"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 2:
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)

"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)

The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.

The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".

In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====

Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）

Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.

The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.

And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）

The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.

Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）

In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy

Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40

Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118

Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]

Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]

Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]

Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]

Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]

==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center>
===Abtract===
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation.

''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===Key Words===
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong
===题目 ===
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析
===摘要===
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。
===关键词===
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中
===Introduction===
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version.

“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.

Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.

The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.

American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.

The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.

In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).

The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Three Steps of Translation====
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.

Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?

Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)

In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.

Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).

Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.

The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)

Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)

Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).

The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).

Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).

Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).

From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).

Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.

He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).

Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version====
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).

So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.

“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).

Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.

“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)

It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.

In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.

Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same.

In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.

Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.

In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.

“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

======Alliteration======
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.

(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.

(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.

In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)
蔡牧师只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.

(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)
蔡牧师只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.

Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).

An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

======Paradox======
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).

Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.

(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for
publication. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?
西西丽哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons.

In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)

Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

======Antithesis======

(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能阁下似乎不明白，婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.

"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).

As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)
劳你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.

This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.

Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).

The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).

The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).

For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===Conclusion===
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).

The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.

One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===References===
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.

Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.

Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.

Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.

Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.

Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.

Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.

Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.

Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.

Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.

Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.

Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.

Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.

Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.

Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.

Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.

Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.

Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

=Applicaton of Translation Theories=
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603==

===Abstract===
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.

With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies

===题目===
释意理论指导下的口译

===摘要===
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。

===关键词===
释意理论；口译；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.

===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence.

The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)

The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)

The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself.

Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.

The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.

understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.

The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.

In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)

===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.

There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)

Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)

===2. Literary Review===
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.

===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.

The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized.

At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry.

Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.

It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.

===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===

Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work.

With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.

First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.

On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.

===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.

Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

===3.1 Free Translation===

The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.

===3.2 Addition of Message===

Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.

===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===

As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.

===Conclusion===

In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.

The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics.

Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)

The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)

In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)

In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===References===
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1.

*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.

*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.

*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.

*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.

*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.

*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.

* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.

* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]

* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.

*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.

*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.

='''Theory and Practise'''=

==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==

===Abstract===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Keywords ===
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation

===摘要===
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段；第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。

===关键词===
佛经，翻译，直译，意译

===Introduction===
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being.
Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.
Chnese—Chinese please keep your tense consistency. There should be some conjunctions to make it more logical.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).
adhere strictly to — strictly adhere to; the form similarity— the similarity in form--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.
three period —three periods. Please keep your tense consistency. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.

it was not so widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier that it is of great …into Chinese, hence translators of Buddhist scriptures Constantly emerge. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==== An Shigao ====
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).

He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Zhi Chen ====
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear.
“Transliteration” “ the same as”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Zhi Qian ====
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.

Please keep the tense consistency. “while ignoring”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days.

(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.

“mainstream” —“dominant”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.

“then can only…”—“they” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.

=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.

Buddhism believer is not “only”limited to--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Shi Daoan ====
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”.
Please keep your tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.

The principle of “Five Losses…” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.
“by private”—“privately”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Kumarajiva ====
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form.
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).

Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.

Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).

(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.

(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.

(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).

=== Tang Dynasty ===
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.

==== Xuang Zang ====
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).

In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.

(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.

(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.

(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.

(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.

=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.

“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.

In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.

=== Conclusion ===
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation

=== References ===
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223

Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308

Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.

Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University

Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.

Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.

Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70.

Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press

Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.

WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.

Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.

Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.

He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.

Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.

Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.

Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.

==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究==
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi==
<center>成于思，202020080598.</center>--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)
==='''Abstract'''===
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.

===Key words===
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles

André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:09, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===题目===
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析

===摘要===
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。

===关键词===
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则

安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 11:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===1.Introduction===
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.

In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.

In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.

In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.

All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.

===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===

''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies.

In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force.

In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii)

Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)

If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.

If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)

The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.

I enjoy reading this book because it brings us and those aloof and remarkable scholars more closer. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh before our eyes and narrate their feelings of being translators to us themselves. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47)

In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" through the excerpts collected in Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook. (Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)

In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.

Lefevere extracted two statements by Dryden and relatively placed them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

In the preface, Dryden proposed three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating the poem in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Dryden argued that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties: not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and finding out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 03:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103)

As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)

It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation.

Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)

However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argued that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)

Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014)

Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars such as Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)

A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73)

About the value of this book, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)

About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===

In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2)

In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture.

Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33)

He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)

The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)

Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)

Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179)

The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)

Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the superficial, assertive and rational current views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)

Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)

Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)

Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread throughtout China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987)

In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)

In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features change from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101)

As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51)

The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)

Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)

Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===

===4.1 From the aspect of the content===
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles.

Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)

===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently.

Both of the two books are arranged in a theme way rather than a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and the translating technique. Liu arranges his book differently for the longer essays are collected in the last chapter.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.

Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includes the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which help the readers to better understand the translation principles.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.

In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have a profound understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave as well as the figuring out of the reason of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.

André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.

Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.

Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.

Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.

Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.

Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.

Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.

Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==

==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.
===Key Words===
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend
===摘要===
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。
===关键词===
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势
===Introuction===
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.

Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===

Ancient Translation Period

The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China

A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.

Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects:

(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.

Translation Theory in the Republic of China

Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China

The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===

Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory

Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018).

In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018).

Innovation of ontology

Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===

Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation.

The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)

The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory

Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.

Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories.

The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present.

These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation.

Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism.

Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough.

The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)

The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry

As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application.

Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)

===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===

Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)

Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.
Third, researchers and institutions.

The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.

Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.

Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.

Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.

Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes.

This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.

Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).

The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen.

The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.

===Trends in Translation Theory Research===

Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration

Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”.

In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

Return to culture development

The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.

Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation

Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

===Conclusion===

From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.

===References===

[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.

[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.

[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.

[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.

[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.

[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.

[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.

[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.

[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.

[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.

==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645==

吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645

==='''Abstract'''===
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.

==='''Key words'''===

Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.

==='''摘要'''===

归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。

==='''关键词'''===

归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流

===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===

Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）

On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）

For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）

==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===

Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.

Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）

So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）

On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）

Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）

===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===

1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture

The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)

Example 1:

路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 2

云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 3

花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill)
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)

Example 4

Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)

Example 5

她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

Example 6

四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls.
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture

With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

Example 7

番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.
砂锅面(casserole noodles)
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Example 8

蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)
This translation is named after historical allusions.
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor.
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.

Example 9

“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

Example 10

Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy

Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 11

我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 12

“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 13

耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 14

“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。（Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）

"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 15

我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

===''' Conclusion '''===

Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.

===''' References '''===

* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.

='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=

==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center>
==='''Abstract'''===
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .

Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Key words'''===
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction

===摘要===
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。

===关键词===
翻译学；语言学；学科构建

==='''1.Introduction'''===
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）

Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）

For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.

This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.(quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''2.Literature review '''===
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology.

This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. (quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''

In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)

In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)

J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.(J.A Catford , 1965)

J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.( James Holmes,1975)

Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.(Wolfram Wilss, 1982)

In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.( Peter Newmark, 1981)

Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.(Hatim & Mason,1990 )

Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.(Christiane Nord, 1997)

Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.(Mona Baker, 2006)

Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''

In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）

In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.(Dong Qiusi, 1951)

In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)

In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)

In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)

At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)

At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)

Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)

Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong X
iangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.(Yi Jing, 2009)

Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012)

Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)

Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.(Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)

Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition.(Wang Yin,2017)

In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation.Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.(Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)

Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)

Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)

Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.

From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research. ( quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===

In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.（Yang Zijian，1993）

In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. ( quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''

"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)

"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）

In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.( Kong Xiangli,2009)

Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''

Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)

Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''

Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.(Yi Jing,2009)

Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei ect. (Yi Jing,2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)

The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''

'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent academic discipline'''--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.(Tan Zaixi, 1987 )

Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）

Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''

Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)

Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）

Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===

For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )

For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation

As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）

These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )

These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory

In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )

In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics

Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)

Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)
--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)

Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)

Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)

Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics

For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）

For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.(Yi Jing, 2009 )

Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）

4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics

As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）

As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)

Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics

In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )

In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.4.1 Discipline development

Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）

Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )

The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.4.2 Discipline structure

Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.(Yang Zijian,1993)

Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）

From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline

Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）

Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''5.Conclusion'''===
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)

Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.(Liu Miqing, 1989)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.

Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.

Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''

Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.

Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.

Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.

Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.

Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].

Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.

Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.

Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.

Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.

Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.

O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.

Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.

Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.

Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.

Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.

Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.

Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].

Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.

Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.

Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.

Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.

Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.

==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==

==='''Abstract'''===

With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.

==='''Key words'''===

Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents

==='''题目'''===

对中国翻译学学习的反思

==='''摘要'''===

随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。

随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''关键词'''===

翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才

==='''1. Introduction'''===

1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies

Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972)

Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)

Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior.

Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.

1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972)

Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)

Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior.

Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies

With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable.

As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system.

Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)

1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies

With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable.

As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system.

Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===

Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.

Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies

In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention.

In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention.

The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.

The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.

However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies

At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences.

At the beginning of this period, translation studies was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)

At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies

In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.

In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.

There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.（quotation missing）

==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===

The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.

The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.1. Translation Education

With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）

With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.

However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents

At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)

In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.1.2. Faculty Resources

The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability.

The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)

The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)

3.1.3. Teaching method

Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018)

This kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.

This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research

The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare.（Ou Yonghua 2019）

The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)

Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.2. Students

The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.

The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.

3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning

Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough.

Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)

As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.

As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge

Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information.

Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015)

3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge

At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）

At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===

In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.

In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1. Translation Education

4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode

The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. (Wang Baigula 2018)

The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)

Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)

The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force

Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents.

Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）

Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)

4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation

Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)

Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)

The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)

4.2. Students

The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.

Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.1. Expanding knowledge

Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)

A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more

Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times.

Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)

==='''5.Conclusion'''===

This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research.

This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.

President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.

Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hope that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.

Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.

Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.

Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.

Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].

Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.

Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.

Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8.

Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16

Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.

Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.

Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.

Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.

Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].

Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8.

Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.

Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.

Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.

Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.

Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.

==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center>

<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center>

===Abstract===
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.

===Keywords===
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays

===题目===
译者文化身份对翻译的影响

===摘要===
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。

===关键词===
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧

===Introduction===
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.

Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)

There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.

=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.

Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.

(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)

====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.

In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.

Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.

（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades."

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12)

We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.

We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)

According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.

The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The cultural identity of translators in translation===
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.

Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
====In terms of the original intention of translation====
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it.

The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.

Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".

Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.

Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)

EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，

This man hath my consent to marry her．
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的

Stand forth，Lysander．
走上前来，拉山德。

And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子（朱生豪. 2013：9）

In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work.
For example, his translation.
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)

拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。

Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.

First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:

LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)

Translation of Liang Shiqiu:

赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，

否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。

HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool:

And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)

海上学时她就是个狐狸精。

她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。

Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966)
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature.

For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.

Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;
There with fantastic garlands did she come,
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,
When down her weedy trophies and herself
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one
incapable of her own distress,
Or like a creature native and indu’d
Unto that element: but long it could not be
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay
To muddy death.
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）

The translation of Liang Shiqiu：
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。

===Conclusion===
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works.

For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion.

By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.

===References===

Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．

Yan Xiaojiang严晓江．梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)

Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.

Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.

Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128..

Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.

Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.

Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．

Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．

Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004

Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.

Shakespeare.莎士比亚四大喜剧梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001

Shakespeare.莎士比亚．仲夏夜之梦朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．

Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.

==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==

===Abstract===
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.

===Key words===
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies

===摘要===
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍

===关键字===
描述翻译学；翻译研究

===Introduction===
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.

Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.

Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.

In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.

The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.

Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]

In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.

According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]

He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.

According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.

Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112

Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.

According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.

Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.

In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.

The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.

Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.

The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.

Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.

Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations].

Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].

Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].

Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.

Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.

Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.

Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.

Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].

==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==

<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center>

<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract:===
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.

This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要：===
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。

本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words:===
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.

===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.

===Chapter 1 Introduction===

Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）

Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）

Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20)

In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===

In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.

In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 John MacFarlane====

In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Firth====

Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240)

Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 James Holmes====

With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）

With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

"He divides translation studies into three categories:
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）

"He divides translation studies into three categories:
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive.

He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).

Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.

However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4 Polysystem Theory====

In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）

Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5 Gideon Toury

Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）

Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally.

In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)

Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.

He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.6 Snell-Hornby

In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation.

In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)

Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===

====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====

In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.

In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.

Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)

Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：

Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts.

(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)

However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22)

(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====

First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201)

First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)

Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)

This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice.

On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)

Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====

In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )

In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.

The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 4 Conclusion===

Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.

Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.

Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.

Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 5 Reference===
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.

J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.

Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.

Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.

Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.

Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).

Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]

Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).

Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]

Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).

Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).

==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies==

Translation Strategies

==Abstract ==

Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.

Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.

This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;

==Introduction==

The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers deﬁne them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical signiﬁcance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)

==Content==

Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classiﬁcations from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classiﬁcation is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classiﬁcations. It seems that clear-cut deﬁnitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype deﬁnitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reﬂect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reﬂects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)

The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp ﬁction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)

Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the deﬁnitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few deﬁning characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difﬁculty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or speciﬁc) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “speciﬁc activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle speciﬁc problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by speciﬁc techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classiﬁed by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural ﬁltering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

However, this is not consonant with the dictionary deﬁnitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is deﬁned as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) deﬁnes translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will inﬂuence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identiﬁed the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identiﬁcation, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal signiﬁcant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can ﬁnd out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==
Darwish (2008) identiﬁes four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70
==
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might inﬂuence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difﬁculty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).

==Conclusion==

In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.

==References==

Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Lafﬂing(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.