China Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]

Money in early China

2013-04-17T09:16:53Z

Christopher W:

== Early systems of exchange ==
In ancient China, coins were not used to exchange goods, but instead the people used bolts of silk and rice to determine the worth of something. At one point, salt was even used for money, with families being given a block of salt to buy whatever was needed and what was left was used for cooking.
[[File:Wei_coin.jpg‎|200px|thumb|right|found from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_round_coin.jpg?uselang=en-gb]Author Zcm11]]
== Metal coins ==
Early coins were in the shapes of knives or spears, though these coins had no practical use, they may have been a reflection of the times.
Most dynasties used unique coins with a new shape and stamp to differentiate the new dynasty from the old. The earliest metal used for coins was brass, but each dynasty also used different metals such as iron. [[File:Sung_coin.jpg‎|200px|thumb|right| Found from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_-_wu_zhu_coin_showing_traces_of_production_process.JPG?uselang=en-gb] Author Alfons Åberg]]Coins commonly had a hole in the middle so they could be looped around the belt for easy access.

== Paper Money ==
In 1120 the Song Dynasty started using paper coins. What started as a way for warehouses to help customers easily pay for goods, became a government sponsored program and turned into the worlds first government paper money system. The use of paper money made credit more available through money-lenders, brokers, warehousemen and wholesalers.

== References ==
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China,2nd ed. Cambridge University Press 2010, Cambridge, New York. 41, 42,54,72,75,142

Powerpoint [[File:Money_in_china.pptx]]

Money in early China

2013-04-17T09:15:43Z

Christopher W:

== Early systems of exchange ==
In ancient China, coins were not used to exchange goods, but instead the people used bolts of silk and rice to determine the worth of something. At one point, salt was even used for money, with families being given a block of salt to buy whatever was needed and what was left was used for cooking.
[[File:Wei_coin.jpg‎|200px|thumb|right|found from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_round_coin.jpg?uselang=en-gb] ]]
== Metal coins ==
Early coins were in the shapes of knives or spears, though these coins had no practical use, they may have been a reflection of the times.
Most dynasties used unique coins with a new shape and stamp to differentiate the new dynasty from the old. The earliest metal used for coins was brass, but each dynasty also used different metals such as iron. [[File:Sung_coin.jpg‎|200px|thumb|right| Found from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_-_wu_zhu_coin_showing_traces_of_production_process.JPG?uselang=en-gb] Author Alfons Åberg]]Coins commonly had a hole in the middle so they could be looped around the belt for easy access.

== Paper Money ==
In 1120 the Song Dynasty started using paper coins. What started as a way for warehouses to help customers easily pay for goods, became a government sponsored program and turned into the worlds first government paper money system. The use of paper money made credit more available through money-lenders, brokers, warehousemen and wholesalers.

== References ==
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China,2nd ed. Cambridge University Press 2010, Cambridge, New York. 41, 42,54,72,75,142

Powerpoint [[File:Money_in_china.pptx]]

Money in early China

2013-04-17T09:15:11Z

Christopher W:

== Early systems of exchange ==
In ancient China, coins were not used to exchange goods, but instead the people used bolts of silk and rice to determine the worth of something. At one point, salt was even used for money, with families being given a block of salt to buy whatever was needed and what was left was used for cooking.
[[File:Wei_coin.jpg‎|200px|thumb|right|found from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_round_coin.jpg?uselang=en-gb] Author Alfons Åberg]]
== Metal coins ==
Early coins were in the shapes of knives or spears, though these coins had no practical use, they may have been a reflection of the times.
Most dynasties used unique coins with a new shape and stamp to differentiate the new dynasty from the old. The earliest metal used for coins was brass, but each dynasty also used different metals such as iron. [[File:Sung_coin.jpg‎|200px|thumb|right| Found from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_-_wu_zhu_coin_showing_traces_of_production_process.JPG?uselang=en-gb]]]Coins commonly had a hole in the middle so they could be looped around the belt for easy access.

== Paper Money ==
In 1120 the Song Dynasty started using paper coins. What started as a way for warehouses to help customers easily pay for goods, became a government sponsored program and turned into the worlds first government paper money system. The use of paper money made credit more available through money-lenders, brokers, warehousemen and wholesalers.

== References ==
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China,2nd ed. Cambridge University Press 2010, Cambridge, New York. 41, 42,54,72,75,142

Powerpoint [[File:Money_in_china.pptx]]

Capitals: When, Where and Why they were moved

2013-04-17T09:10:53Z

Christopher W:

Throughout the history of China, there have been many capitals. Why did the people of China find it necessary to change the location of their capital so often? When did they move it? Where was it moved to?

== Notes for presentation- Capitals and various names ==

=== Anyang ===
called,Yin 殷
Capital during the Yin period of the Shang Dynasty(estimated between 1600 BC and 1046 BC): pinyin: Yīn)

=== Beijing ===
State of Yan (Yen in WG) in Spring and Autumn Period (722-481 BC): called Ji 薊,.
Liao Dynasty (907-1125), as a secondary capital: called Yanjing (燕京, pinyin: Yānjīng, "capital of Yan").
Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) from Emperor Shizong until 1215: called Zhongdu (中都, pinyin: Zhōngdū, "central capital").
Yuan Dynasty (1271 to 1368): called Dadu (大都, pinyin: Dàdū, "great capital") in Chinese, Daidu (a direct transliteration from Chinese[1]) in Mongolian and Khanbaliq ("city of the Khan") in the Turkic languages. This was reported as "Cambuluc" by Marco Polo.
Ming Dynasty from the time of the Ming Yongle Emperor (r. 1402/1424) until 1644 called Jīngshī (京師,"capital").
Qing Dynasty from the fall of the Ming in 1644 to the end of the dynasty in 1912

=== Chang’an ===
Also known as Xian 西安 (Western Peace)

During the Zhou Dynasty, the area was called Fenghao, with the portion of the city on the west bank of the Feng River called Feng and the portion on the east called Hao 鎬. It was renamed Chang'an, meaning "Perpetual Peace", during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE). It changed in 581 CE to Daxing (大興) during the Sui Dynasty then again became Chang'an from 618 CE during the Tang Dynasty. During the Yuan Dynasty (1270-1368 CE), the city was first given the name Fengyuan (奉元), followed by Anxi (安西) then Jingzhao (京兆). It finally became Xi'an in the year 1369 CE at the time of the Ming Dynasty. This name remained until 1928, then in 1930 it was renamed Xijing (西京), or "Western Capital". The city's name once again reverted to its Ming-era designation of Xi'an in the year 1943.
Xi'an is sometimes abbreviated in Chinese to either Hao or Tang (唐). The former abbreviation is derived from the Zhou Dynasty name Haojing, whilst the latter comes from the name of the Tang Dynasty.

=== Kaifeng ===
Also known as:
Dàliáng 大梁; Biànzhōu 汴州; Dōngjīng 東京; Biànjīng 汴京

The name "Kaifeng" first appeared as the area's name after the Qin Dynasty's conquering of China in the 2nd century BC, and literally means "expand the borders".
In 781 during the Tang Dynasty, a new city was reconstructed and named Bian (汴). Bian was the capital of the Later Jin (936–946), Later Han (947–950), and Later Zhou (951–960) of the Five Dynasties Period. The Song Dynasty made Bian its capital when it overthrew the Later Zhou in 960. Shortly afterwards the city underwent further expansion.
During the Song Dynasty when it was known as Dongjing or Bianjing, Kaifeng was the Chinese capital with a population of over 400,000, living both inside and outside the city wall

=== Luoyang, 洛陽 ===
The origin of the name "Luoyang" is the city's location to the north side ("yang") of the Luo River. The river flows from west to east and the sun is on south of the river, so that the sun shine is always on north side of the river. Luoyang has had several names over the centuries, including "Luoyi" (洛邑) and "Luozhou (洛州)", though Luoyang has been its primary name. It has been called, during various periods, "Dongdu" (东都, meaning the Eastern Capital, during the Tang Dynasty), "Xijing" (西京, meaning the West Capital, during the Song Dynasty), or "Jingluo" (京洛, meaning the general capital for China).

This area at the intersection of the Luo and Yi rivers was considered to be the geographical center of China. Because of this sacred aspect several cities, all of which are generally referred to as "Luoyang", have been built there. In 2070 BCE, the Xia Dynasty king Tai Kang moved the Xia capital to the intersection of Luo river and Yi River and named the city Zhenxun (Chinese: 斟鄩; pinyin: Zhēnxún). In c 1600 BCE, King Tang of Shang defeated Jie, the final Xia Dynasty king, and built Western Bo (Chinese: 西亳; pinyin: Xībó), a new capital on the Luo River. The ruins of Western Bo are located in Luoyang Prefecture.
In the 1136 BCE a settlement named Chéngzhōu (Chinese: 成周) was constructed by the Duke of Zhou for the remnants of the captured Shang nobility. The Duke also moved the Nine Tripod Cauldrons to Chengzhou from the Zhou Dynasty capital at Haojing. A second Western Zhou capital, Wangcheng (also: Luoyi) was built 15 km west of Chengzhou. It became the capital of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty in 771 BCE. The Eastern Zhou Dynasty capital was moved to Chengzhou in 510 BCE. Later, the Eastern Han Dynasty capital of Luoyang would be built over Chengzhou. The ruins of Chengzhou are still visible today 2 km east of the White Horse Temple area. Modern Luoyang is built over the ruins of Wangcheng, which are still visible today at Wangcheng Park.

=== Nanjing ===
Nanjing was one of the earliest established cities in what is now China. According to legend, Fu Chai, Lord of the State of Wu, founded a fort named Yecheng (冶城) in today's Nanjing area in 495 BCE. Later in 473 BCE, the State of Yue conquered Wu and constructed the fort of Yuecheng (越城) on the outskirts of the present-day Zhonghua Gate. In 333 BCE, after eliminating the State of Yue, the State of Chu built Jinling Yi (金陵邑) in the western part of present-day Nanjing. Under the Qin and Han dynasties, it was called Moling (秣陵).
Nanjing first became a capital in 229 CE, where Sun Quan of the Wu Kingdom, during the Three Kingdoms Period, relocated its capital to Jianye (建業), a city he extended on the basis of Jinling Yi in 211 CE. Although conquered by the West Jin Dynasty in 280, Nanjing and its neighboring areas had been well cultivated and developed into one of the commercial, cultural, and political centers of China during the rule of East Wu. This city would soon play a vital role in the following centuries.
Shortly after the unification of the region, the West Jin state collapsed in wars. It was at first rebels of eight Jin princes for the throne and later rebels and invasion from Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples that destroyed the rule of Jin in the north. In 317, remnants of the Jin court, as well as nobles and wealthy families, fled from the north to the south and reestablished the Jin court in Nanjing, which was then called Jiankang (建康).
It was again chosen as the capital as Jinling (金陵) during the short-lived Southern Tang (937–975)
Under the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), the Nanjing area was known as Jiangning (江寧)
As the capital of the brief-lived Taiping Kingdom in the mid-19th century, Nanjing was known as Tianjing (天京, "Heavenly Capital" or "Capital of Heaven")

== List of dynasties & capitals ==

'''Xia''' (21st-16th century B.C.)
- Yuncheng 运城, in Shanxi Province
- Erlitou 二里头, in Henan Province

'''Shang''' (16th century-1066 B.C.)
- Aodu 奥都, at modern Zhengzhou in Henan Province
- Yin 殷, near modern Anyang

'''Western Zhou''' (1066-771 B.C.)
- Zongzhou 宗周 (Hao), near Xi'an in Shaanxi Province

'''Eastern Zhou''' (770-256 B.C.)
- Chengzhou 成周, at modern Luoyang

'''Warring States''' (475-221 B.C.)
- Various

'''Qin''' (221-206 B.C.)
- Xianyang 咸阳, in Shaanxi Province

'''Western Han''' (206 B.C.-A.D.220)
- Chang'an 长安, at modern Xi'an in Shaanxi Province

'''Eastern Han''' (A.D. 25-220)
- Luoyang 洛阳, in Henan Province

'''Three Kingdoms:'''''

'''Wei''' (A.D. 220-265)
- Luoyang 洛阳, in Henan Province

'''Shu''' (A.D. 221-263)
- Chengdu 成都, in Sichuan Province

'''Wu''' (A.D. 222-280)
- Jianye 建业, at modern Nanjing in Jiangsu Province

'''Western Jin''' (A.D. 265-316)
- Luoyang 洛阳, in Henan Province
- Chang'an 长安, at modern Xi'an in Shaanxi Province

'''Eastern Jin''' (A.D. 317-420)
- Jiankang 建康, at modern Nanjing in Jiangsu Province

'''Sixteen States''' (A.D. 304-439)
- Various

'''Southern Dynasties''' (A.D. 420-589)

- Jiankang 建康, at modern Nanjing in Jiangsu Province
Northern Dynasties (A.D. 386-581)

- Datong 大同, in Shanxi Province

- Luoyang 洛阳, in Henan Province

- Chang'an 长安, at modern Xi'an in Shaanxi Province

- Linzhang 临漳, in Hebei Province

'''Sui''' (A.D. 581-618)
- Chang'an 长安, at modern Xi'an in Shaanxi Province
Tang (A.D. 618-960)

- Kaifeng 开封, in Henan Province

'''Northern Song''' (A.D. 960-1279)
- Kaifeng 开封, in Henan Province

'''Southern Song''' (A.D. 1127-1279)
- Lin'an 临安, at modern Hangzhou in Zhejiang Province

'''Liao''' (Khitan) (A.D. 916-1125)
- Linhuang 临潢, in Inner Mongolia

'''Western Xia''' (A.D. 1038-1227)
- Xingqing 兴庆, at modern Yinchuan in Ningxia Province

'''Jin''' (Jurchen) (A.D. 1115-1234)
- Daxing 大兴, at modern Beijing

'''Yuan''' (Mongol) (A.D. 1271-1368)
- Dadu 大都, at modern Beijing

'''Ming''' (A.D. 1368-1644)
- Nanjing 南京, in Jiangsu Province
- Beijing 北京, at modern Beijing

'''Qing''' (Jurchen/Manchu) (A.D. 1644-1911)
- Shenyang 沈阳 (Mukden), in Liaoning Province
- Beiping 北平, at modern Beijing

The Forbidden City

2013-04-17T09:09:15Z

Christopher W: /* The Forbidden City */

== The Forbidden City ==

The Forbidden City, also known as "Gu Gong" （故宫). It is the the biggest palace ever in the history of man, furthermore it is a major symbol to Chinese people as their greatness and glory. There are any ancient Chinese constructions that are symbols that are of imperial and ancient Chinese times, however The Forbidden City is much more advanced and superior in construction than past buildings and creations. The grandeur and complexity of the palace lead to its intrigue today.

== History ==

The creation and construction of the palace began in the time of the Ming Dynasty. The MIng Emperor Taizu had a few sons, and one of his sons named "Yongle" was a General that was based and commanded the empires army out of the city in Bei ping (also known now as Beijing). As the Ming emperor got older and was ready to pass on the Empire he had two choices, it was between Yongle and his eldest grandson Jiang Wen who was only 15 years old at the time. Not in Yongle's favor, Emperor Taizu selected Jiang Wen as the new Emperor. in 1398 the Emperor Taizu died and then Jiang Wen took over as new Emperor, Yongle was infuriated and became even more angry to see that the empire was changing to a society of scholars and education. True to his military background, Yongle felt that if the empire were to continue in that direction, the enemy Mongols could and would easily take over China.

In 1402, Yongle decided to enter into Nan jing to take over the capital. In doing so emperor Jiang Wen fled, disguised as a Buddhist monk, never to be seen again. Overtime Yongle did not feel comfortable in the city becuase Nan jing was still the city of Jiang Wen. Yongle decided the best way to establish his authority and legitimize his claim to the throne was to move the capital. He decided to move it North to the military capital of Bei ping (Beijing), so that he could strengthen the region closest to the Mongol enemies.

The most difficult aspect of establishing his authority as emperor was that he had to prove that he had the Mandate of Heaven on his side. Yongle believed that by constructing a massive palace and utilizing celestial symbols and orientation, the people would understand that he was the representative of Heaven. Yongle sought to make people forget that he had not been chosen originally to be the emperor and that he had usurped the throne through treachery. His opponents had been eradicated, the capital moved, then all that remained was the construction of his epic abode.

== Construction ==

In 1405, plans were created for the construction of the palace. Eunuchs were ordered to measure every aspect of the old palace in Nan jing. Each and every staircase, building, plaza, and beam was measured in the effort to ensure that Yongle's palace in Beijing would be larger in every way. It was imperative that the new emperor's city dwarf that of Nan jing because its size would represent the authority and power of its owner.

Over 1 million people were sent all over China to gather materials, the conditions that these people faced were harsh and many of them did not make it out alive. In addition the people were unpaid and beat by soldiers. These individuals built approximately 900-1000 structures, using hundreds of thousands of bricks. A legend about the Forbidden City is that there are 9,999 rooms contained within the complex. This is merely a legend because this number is used more as a symbol of luck and prosperity. The number 9 is the closest number to perfection, which is 10. To associate Yongle and the subsequent emperors with the closest number to perfection, it helps establish their authority. The Chinese word for the number 9 is also a homonym for the word for luck. Obviously the emperor of China would want to be associated in any way with good fortune, so the legend of the 9,999 rooms was perpetuated.

The wood that was used came from the Southwest part of China. 380,000 large, identical, pillars were cut and transported the 1,100 miles along the Grand Canal to Beijing. The Grand Canal is a man made waterway that connects the capital of Beijing to important rivers. In order to transport the timbers from the Southwest the Grand Canal had to be re-dredged and widened. 300,000 workers were used in this process and between the logging of the timber pillars and the dredging of the Grand Canal approximately half of the workers perished.

Another important aspect of the Forbidden City was the ceramic tiles that covered the 180 acres of floors and plazas within the walls of the complex. The stones that were used came from the North from a factory that has not changed its method of production in over 600 years. Not only have they managed to maintain the traditional method of production, but they also have not ceased production of the same exact style, quality, and size of floor tiles in that same span of time.

Once the floor tiles were transported to Beijing, they were placed in many layers to prevent potential invaders from being able to tunnel into the Forbidden City. The many layers created a thick protection from beneath, but it was the formidable wall surrounding the complex that created the most imposing view. Over thirty feet tall and twenty feet thick, the walls were constructed using the rammed earth method, similar to the Great Wall, and were faced with bricks to make them last longer against erosion. The rammed earth method was characterized by the dense packing of earth in layers coupled with the mixture of components such as pig's blood to create a sort of cement. The outer layer of bricks was then added in order to make the walls an impenetrable barrier that could withstand cannon fire. Yongle sought to make physical representation of his eternal status as Emperor of China according to the Mandate of Heaven, so no expense was spared. The protective elements of the Forbidden City, the thick flooring, the towering walls, and even the 150-foot wide moat that surrounded it, were all functional symbols of his dominance and authority.

== Design ==

Having spent so much time and energy on getting the highest quality materials to the build site, Yongle made sure that those materials were utilized in the best ways to symbolize his authority. Symbolism in the architecture is found throughout the complex in both color and form.

=== Colors ===

The use of the color red on walls and pillars represented good fortune and fire in Chinese culture. The use of the color black counteracted the red in that it represented water and would protect the wooden structures from destructive fire. The color yellow was probably the most important color used in the complex, covering every roof tile and every item associated with the emperor. Yellow represented power and was the only color that they emperor wore, and therefore represented him and his power over his fellow Chinese.

=== Animals ===

The use of animal figurines and statues throughout the complex also represented intense symbolism. Lions guard the entrances to most buildings and main gates, depicting the power that the emperor had over not only his people, but over the world. Dragons adorned the throne and chambers of the emperor and were representative of his mystical power and authority. Cranes flanked both sides of the emperor's throne and are found in other locations to symbolize longevity, with the hope of course that both the life and reign of the emperor would last the test of time. On the corners of each building's roof small figures of mythical animals were lined up in specific order to repel the bad fortune and evil spirits that may affect the emperor or adversely impact the residents and events of the Forbidden City.

=== Celestial Connection ===

Since Yongle sought to remind everyone of his connection to Heaven and his claim to the Mandate of Heaven, he sought to utilize whatever physical representation possible to depict and imply that connection. When the blueprints for the Forbidden City were designed, the architects aligned the center of the complex with the Pole Star or North Star. The Chinese associated the Pole Star with the constant, unchanging nature of Heaven because it remained fixed while all other stars rotated around it. By basing his palace on this point, Yongle connected himself with that point in the sky and his Chinese subjects would have also made this association. Everything that Yongle did in the construction and design of the Forbidden City was with the purpose of reiterating his authority and status as emperor, but especially to make it eternal.

== Palace Life ==

The Forbidden City was home to the emperor and his court, but because of the private and secretive nature of the palace, there was little known about the day to day interactions within the walls. Half of the complex was dedicated to the treatment of foreign officials and governmental matters, while the other half was the residence of the emperor and his court and the most secretive sector of the complex where no one was allowed to enter.

=== Eunuchs ===

The people that were charged with the daily functions of the palace were the thousands of eunuchs that had dedicated their lives to the service of the emperor. These men were castrated volunteer servants that were responsible for the organization of life inside that palace walls. Their main responsibilities were to operate the Imperial workshops which included all of the mundane functions of life, but certain preferred eunuchs were responsible for tending to thousands of the emperor's concubines.

Under the rule of the Ming Dynasty, the eunuchs were more free to become educated and were able to work their way into the governmental bureaucracy and politics. In some instances they were the first level of governmental authority that dignitaries had to meet before being granted access to the emperor. The eunuchs became very accustomed to this high status and honor and it came as a shock when this was all revoked upon the establishment of the Qing Dynasty in the Forbidden City. The Qing emperors sought to reestablish the former role of the eunuchs in the palace and assigned them to simple and menial jobs in order to separate them from the political aspect of life in the palace. To be a eunuch was an honor and the men that were selected for that responsibility lived very privileged lives compared to the Chinese subjects outside the Forbidden City.

=== Concubines ===

During the construction of the Forbidden City, in 1408, Yongle sent eunuchs to Korea to find beautiful young virgins to bring to the Forbidden City to serve as his concubines. The eunuchs were very thorough in their search and scoured each and every Korean village for adequate women. The eunuchs inspected the hands, teeth, body odor, sleep habits, bodily functions, foot size, etc. to assure the highest quality tributes for the court of the emperor. Of the 300 young girls that were originally found, only five were selected to be concubines. Eventually the court would contain thousands of girls from all over the Chinese Empire.

A Ritual Calendar was maintained for the purpose of assigning the correct concubine for intercourse each night. Since the Chinese had such a focus on the power of celestial influence on good fortune and the purpose of the concubines was to conceive the next heir to the throne, each concubine had astrological and zodiac ties and order was maintained to prevent incongruities of the heavens. Each night the correct concubine was selected and taken to the emperor's quarters for intercourse. If a child was conceived, the concubine and her corresponding eunuchs were granted lives of status and leisure.

There was no limit to the number of concubines that an emperor could have and it was common for them to number well into the thousands. Many concubines never actually had the opportunity to see the emperor, let alone have the opportunity to conceive the next national leader. Concubines were mainly seen as a symbol of the emperor's wealth and authority. When each emperor died, his chosen concubines were moved from the main dwellings of the Forbidden City and were moved to those in the Garden of Forgotten Favorites where they would live out the rest of their lives in peaceful isolation.

There were instances where the eunuchs and the concubines formed sexual relationships. Even though the eunuchs were castrated men, they spent a lot of their time tending to the needs of the concubines and many formed forbidden intimate relationships. The concubines that never had access to intimacy with the emperor sought to satisfy their more carnal needs with the only other men in the Forbidden City even though the castrated status of the eunuchs made actual intercourse impossible. When Yongle found out about such relationships during his reign, he felt that this dissidence threatened his authority and had approximately 2,800 eunuchs and concubines ritually killed. The event brought about bad fortune for the emperor and his court and the implications plagued Yongle for the remainder of his life.

=== Fortress and Prison ===

Although the residents of the Forbidden City lived lives of luxury and decadence, protected within the fortress-like environment, they were also restricted to that same area. The very walls that protected them from enemies and kept their royal lives private from the outside subjects, also retained them as prisoners of their position and status.

The Book of Ancestral Instruction was the official text of laws that dictated the conduct and procedures to which the palace residents had to adhere. The bureaucracy of procedures in the Forbidden City was somewhat of an obsession for the emperors of China. The rules dictated what actions and events were scheduled and when. If a concubine wanted new jewelry or a new robe she had to request it from her attending eunuch who would then bring it to the attention of his presiding eunuch. The request was then verified with the concubine to ensure that it was not simply something that her attending eunuch was attempting to acquire for himself. The emperors wanted the bureaucracy because it reiterated their authority over every aspect of Chinese life no matter the status or position of the individual.

== Decline of the Forbidden City ==

The Forbidden City remained essentially enclosed and unchanged in major ways from 1420 when construction was completed, until the early 1900s when the Chinese Empire began to open its doors to the outsiders. The culture that most actively sought connections for trade and commerce with the Chinese was the British Empire, who were known to the Chinese as "Western Barbarians." The conflicts that arose between these two empires such as the Opium Wars, and the intense nature of commerce with the British East India Company, lead the two nations to have tumultuous interactions. The Boxer Rebellion was the final straw for the weakened Imperial power. The last Emperor was evicted from the Forbidden City in 1925 and finally common people were allowed to enter and witness what was held inside.

== Modernity ==

Even though the Forbidden City lost much of the mystical secrecy it had prior to the eviction of the emperors, it is still a large part of the national cultural consciousness. The architectural grandeur of the palace represents the historical greatness of the Chinese past and as a result symbolizes the modern potential of Chinese people. The tradition of growth and magnitude of construction is displayed in modern Beijing as the city moves toward a vertical skyline with the recent addition of hundreds of skyscrapers. These symbols of progress, power, and economic stability serve the same purpose as the Forbidden City in antiquity.

The palace complex was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 granting it protection for future generations to admire. The Forbidden City has been turned into the Palace Museum where they house approximately 100,000 priceless treasures of Chinese artifacts from different periods of history. It has also become a favorite location for tourists to visit, hosting about 10,000,000 visitors from around the world every year.

The Forbidden City will always be held in high regard for its architectural and cultural qualities and it represents a turning points in Chinese history from the Nan jing era to the fall of the emperors. The mystical aspects of the palace have long since been revealed, but the Forbidden City still calls to those who wish to enter a world once secluded from the public.

==== Sources ====

[[File:The Forbidden City.pptx]]

http://www.kinabaloo.com/fcb.html

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6PqtOo-K-yM

http://www.travelchinaguide.com/attraction/beijing/forbidden/stone_carve.htm

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bgm2JcgGVs4

The Forbidden City

2013-04-17T09:09:00Z

Christopher W:

== The Forbidden City ==

The Forbidden City, also known as "Gu Gong" （故宫). It is the the biggest palace ever in the history of man, furthermore it is a major symbol to Chinese people as their greatness and glory. There are any ancient Chinese constructions that are symbols that are of imperial and ancient Chinese times, however The Forbidden City is much more advanced and superior in construction than past buildings and creations. The grandeur and complexity of the palace lead to its intrigue today.

=== Origins ===

== History ==

The creation and construction of the palace began in the time of the Ming Dynasty. The MIng Emperor Taizu had a few sons, and one of his sons named "Yongle" was a General that was based and commanded the empires army out of the city in Bei ping (also known now as Beijing). As the Ming emperor got older and was ready to pass on the Empire he had two choices, it was between Yongle and his eldest grandson Jiang Wen who was only 15 years old at the time. Not in Yongle's favor, Emperor Taizu selected Jiang Wen as the new Emperor. in 1398 the Emperor Taizu died and then Jiang Wen took over as new Emperor, Yongle was infuriated and became even more angry to see that the empire was changing to a society of scholars and education. True to his military background, Yongle felt that if the empire were to continue in that direction, the enemy Mongols could and would easily take over China.

In 1402, Yongle decided to enter into Nan jing to take over the capital. In doing so emperor Jiang Wen fled, disguised as a Buddhist monk, never to be seen again. Overtime Yongle did not feel comfortable in the city becuase Nan jing was still the city of Jiang Wen. Yongle decided the best way to establish his authority and legitimize his claim to the throne was to move the capital. He decided to move it North to the military capital of Bei ping (Beijing), so that he could strengthen the region closest to the Mongol enemies.

The most difficult aspect of establishing his authority as emperor was that he had to prove that he had the Mandate of Heaven on his side. Yongle believed that by constructing a massive palace and utilizing celestial symbols and orientation, the people would understand that he was the representative of Heaven. Yongle sought to make people forget that he had not been chosen originally to be the emperor and that he had usurped the throne through treachery. His opponents had been eradicated, the capital moved, then all that remained was the construction of his epic abode.

== Construction ==

In 1405, plans were created for the construction of the palace. Eunuchs were ordered to measure every aspect of the old palace in Nan jing. Each and every staircase, building, plaza, and beam was measured in the effort to ensure that Yongle's palace in Beijing would be larger in every way. It was imperative that the new emperor's city dwarf that of Nan jing because its size would represent the authority and power of its owner.

Over 1 million people were sent all over China to gather materials, the conditions that these people faced were harsh and many of them did not make it out alive. In addition the people were unpaid and beat by soldiers. These individuals built approximately 900-1000 structures, using hundreds of thousands of bricks. A legend about the Forbidden City is that there are 9,999 rooms contained within the complex. This is merely a legend because this number is used more as a symbol of luck and prosperity. The number 9 is the closest number to perfection, which is 10. To associate Yongle and the subsequent emperors with the closest number to perfection, it helps establish their authority. The Chinese word for the number 9 is also a homonym for the word for luck. Obviously the emperor of China would want to be associated in any way with good fortune, so the legend of the 9,999 rooms was perpetuated.

The wood that was used came from the Southwest part of China. 380,000 large, identical, pillars were cut and transported the 1,100 miles along the Grand Canal to Beijing. The Grand Canal is a man made waterway that connects the capital of Beijing to important rivers. In order to transport the timbers from the Southwest the Grand Canal had to be re-dredged and widened. 300,000 workers were used in this process and between the logging of the timber pillars and the dredging of the Grand Canal approximately half of the workers perished.

Another important aspect of the Forbidden City was the ceramic tiles that covered the 180 acres of floors and plazas within the walls of the complex. The stones that were used came from the North from a factory that has not changed its method of production in over 600 years. Not only have they managed to maintain the traditional method of production, but they also have not ceased production of the same exact style, quality, and size of floor tiles in that same span of time.

Once the floor tiles were transported to Beijing, they were placed in many layers to prevent potential invaders from being able to tunnel into the Forbidden City. The many layers created a thick protection from beneath, but it was the formidable wall surrounding the complex that created the most imposing view. Over thirty feet tall and twenty feet thick, the walls were constructed using the rammed earth method, similar to the Great Wall, and were faced with bricks to make them last longer against erosion. The rammed earth method was characterized by the dense packing of earth in layers coupled with the mixture of components such as pig's blood to create a sort of cement. The outer layer of bricks was then added in order to make the walls an impenetrable barrier that could withstand cannon fire. Yongle sought to make physical representation of his eternal status as Emperor of China according to the Mandate of Heaven, so no expense was spared. The protective elements of the Forbidden City, the thick flooring, the towering walls, and even the 150-foot wide moat that surrounded it, were all functional symbols of his dominance and authority.

== Design ==

Having spent so much time and energy on getting the highest quality materials to the build site, Yongle made sure that those materials were utilized in the best ways to symbolize his authority. Symbolism in the architecture is found throughout the complex in both color and form.

=== Colors ===

The use of the color red on walls and pillars represented good fortune and fire in Chinese culture. The use of the color black counteracted the red in that it represented water and would protect the wooden structures from destructive fire. The color yellow was probably the most important color used in the complex, covering every roof tile and every item associated with the emperor. Yellow represented power and was the only color that they emperor wore, and therefore represented him and his power over his fellow Chinese.

=== Animals ===

The use of animal figurines and statues throughout the complex also represented intense symbolism. Lions guard the entrances to most buildings and main gates, depicting the power that the emperor had over not only his people, but over the world. Dragons adorned the throne and chambers of the emperor and were representative of his mystical power and authority. Cranes flanked both sides of the emperor's throne and are found in other locations to symbolize longevity, with the hope of course that both the life and reign of the emperor would last the test of time. On the corners of each building's roof small figures of mythical animals were lined up in specific order to repel the bad fortune and evil spirits that may affect the emperor or adversely impact the residents and events of the Forbidden City.

=== Celestial Connection ===

Since Yongle sought to remind everyone of his connection to Heaven and his claim to the Mandate of Heaven, he sought to utilize whatever physical representation possible to depict and imply that connection. When the blueprints for the Forbidden City were designed, the architects aligned the center of the complex with the Pole Star or North Star. The Chinese associated the Pole Star with the constant, unchanging nature of Heaven because it remained fixed while all other stars rotated around it. By basing his palace on this point, Yongle connected himself with that point in the sky and his Chinese subjects would have also made this association. Everything that Yongle did in the construction and design of the Forbidden City was with the purpose of reiterating his authority and status as emperor, but especially to make it eternal.

== Palace Life ==

The Forbidden City was home to the emperor and his court, but because of the private and secretive nature of the palace, there was little known about the day to day interactions within the walls. Half of the complex was dedicated to the treatment of foreign officials and governmental matters, while the other half was the residence of the emperor and his court and the most secretive sector of the complex where no one was allowed to enter.

=== Eunuchs ===

The people that were charged with the daily functions of the palace were the thousands of eunuchs that had dedicated their lives to the service of the emperor. These men were castrated volunteer servants that were responsible for the organization of life inside that palace walls. Their main responsibilities were to operate the Imperial workshops which included all of the mundane functions of life, but certain preferred eunuchs were responsible for tending to thousands of the emperor's concubines.

Under the rule of the Ming Dynasty, the eunuchs were more free to become educated and were able to work their way into the governmental bureaucracy and politics. In some instances they were the first level of governmental authority that dignitaries had to meet before being granted access to the emperor. The eunuchs became very accustomed to this high status and honor and it came as a shock when this was all revoked upon the establishment of the Qing Dynasty in the Forbidden City. The Qing emperors sought to reestablish the former role of the eunuchs in the palace and assigned them to simple and menial jobs in order to separate them from the political aspect of life in the palace. To be a eunuch was an honor and the men that were selected for that responsibility lived very privileged lives compared to the Chinese subjects outside the Forbidden City.

=== Concubines ===

During the construction of the Forbidden City, in 1408, Yongle sent eunuchs to Korea to find beautiful young virgins to bring to the Forbidden City to serve as his concubines. The eunuchs were very thorough in their search and scoured each and every Korean village for adequate women. The eunuchs inspected the hands, teeth, body odor, sleep habits, bodily functions, foot size, etc. to assure the highest quality tributes for the court of the emperor. Of the 300 young girls that were originally found, only five were selected to be concubines. Eventually the court would contain thousands of girls from all over the Chinese Empire.

A Ritual Calendar was maintained for the purpose of assigning the correct concubine for intercourse each night. Since the Chinese had such a focus on the power of celestial influence on good fortune and the purpose of the concubines was to conceive the next heir to the throne, each concubine had astrological and zodiac ties and order was maintained to prevent incongruities of the heavens. Each night the correct concubine was selected and taken to the emperor's quarters for intercourse. If a child was conceived, the concubine and her corresponding eunuchs were granted lives of status and leisure.

There was no limit to the number of concubines that an emperor could have and it was common for them to number well into the thousands. Many concubines never actually had the opportunity to see the emperor, let alone have the opportunity to conceive the next national leader. Concubines were mainly seen as a symbol of the emperor's wealth and authority. When each emperor died, his chosen concubines were moved from the main dwellings of the Forbidden City and were moved to those in the Garden of Forgotten Favorites where they would live out the rest of their lives in peaceful isolation.

There were instances where the eunuchs and the concubines formed sexual relationships. Even though the eunuchs were castrated men, they spent a lot of their time tending to the needs of the concubines and many formed forbidden intimate relationships. The concubines that never had access to intimacy with the emperor sought to satisfy their more carnal needs with the only other men in the Forbidden City even though the castrated status of the eunuchs made actual intercourse impossible. When Yongle found out about such relationships during his reign, he felt that this dissidence threatened his authority and had approximately 2,800 eunuchs and concubines ritually killed. The event brought about bad fortune for the emperor and his court and the implications plagued Yongle for the remainder of his life.

=== Fortress and Prison ===

Although the residents of the Forbidden City lived lives of luxury and decadence, protected within the fortress-like environment, they were also restricted to that same area. The very walls that protected them from enemies and kept their royal lives private from the outside subjects, also retained them as prisoners of their position and status.

The Book of Ancestral Instruction was the official text of laws that dictated the conduct and procedures to which the palace residents had to adhere. The bureaucracy of procedures in the Forbidden City was somewhat of an obsession for the emperors of China. The rules dictated what actions and events were scheduled and when. If a concubine wanted new jewelry or a new robe she had to request it from her attending eunuch who would then bring it to the attention of his presiding eunuch. The request was then verified with the concubine to ensure that it was not simply something that her attending eunuch was attempting to acquire for himself. The emperors wanted the bureaucracy because it reiterated their authority over every aspect of Chinese life no matter the status or position of the individual.

== Decline of the Forbidden City ==

The Forbidden City remained essentially enclosed and unchanged in major ways from 1420 when construction was completed, until the early 1900s when the Chinese Empire began to open its doors to the outsiders. The culture that most actively sought connections for trade and commerce with the Chinese was the British Empire, who were known to the Chinese as "Western Barbarians." The conflicts that arose between these two empires such as the Opium Wars, and the intense nature of commerce with the British East India Company, lead the two nations to have tumultuous interactions. The Boxer Rebellion was the final straw for the weakened Imperial power. The last Emperor was evicted from the Forbidden City in 1925 and finally common people were allowed to enter and witness what was held inside.

== Modernity ==

Even though the Forbidden City lost much of the mystical secrecy it had prior to the eviction of the emperors, it is still a large part of the national cultural consciousness. The architectural grandeur of the palace represents the historical greatness of the Chinese past and as a result symbolizes the modern potential of Chinese people. The tradition of growth and magnitude of construction is displayed in modern Beijing as the city moves toward a vertical skyline with the recent addition of hundreds of skyscrapers. These symbols of progress, power, and economic stability serve the same purpose as the Forbidden City in antiquity.

The palace complex was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 granting it protection for future generations to admire. The Forbidden City has been turned into the Palace Museum where they house approximately 100,000 priceless treasures of Chinese artifacts from different periods of history. It has also become a favorite location for tourists to visit, hosting about 10,000,000 visitors from around the world every year.

The Forbidden City will always be held in high regard for its architectural and cultural qualities and it represents a turning points in Chinese history from the Nan jing era to the fall of the emperors. The mystical aspects of the palace have long since been revealed, but the Forbidden City still calls to those who wish to enter a world once secluded from the public.

==== Sources ====

[[File:The Forbidden City.pptx]]

http://www.kinabaloo.com/fcb.html

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6PqtOo-K-yM

http://www.travelchinaguide.com/attraction/beijing/forbidden/stone_carve.htm

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bgm2JcgGVs4

Zheng He

2013-04-17T09:06:35Z

Christopher W:

'''Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433)'''

[[File:400px-Bronze_of_Zheng_He,_Jinghai_Si.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Zheng He - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABronze_of_Zheng_He%2C_Jinghai_Si.jpg here] for original source. Author Quentin Scouflaire]]

'''The early years'''

Zheng He also known as Cheng ho was born in Kunming city of Yunnan province in 1371 during the ming dynasty. His original surname was Ma, but was later changed to Zheng as an imperial honor.

He was raised as a Muslim and studied the teachings of Islam at an early age. Both his father and grandfather made the pilgrimage to Mecca and were familiar with far off lands. This is where his curiosity for the outside world began.

Zheng He was captured by the Ming dynasty forces during a military cleansing at the age of 10 where he was taken to Beijing and castrated, becoming a eunuch for the emperor, and lived within the imperial palace grounds. His main task was to serve Zhu Di, the prince of Yan and future emperor of China.

'''Young adulthood'''

Zheng He was extremely loyal and quite brilliant, which won the trust and friendship of the young prince Zhu Di. Zheng He served as the princes personal bodyguard and faught along side the prince in many battles, often influencing the victory and outcome of each battle with his miltary prowess. He also help the prince secure his position as the Emperor of China. Once the prince gained the imperial throne, he promoted Zheng He to the position of Grand Eunuch, leaving him in charge of the thousands of Eunuchs at the imperial palace.

'''His career'''

Zheng Hes career, gaining the trust of the emperor at a young age, allowed him to lead the path in exploration and was sent off with a crew of over 23,000 to explore the outside world. He was left to do much maritime exploration, foreign diplomacy, and military affairs. He did many voyages, reaching as far as East Africa, among much researching into astrology, geography, marine sciences, and shipbuilding and repair. He visited over 30 Asian and African countries and regions and led seven voyages. He was ultimately called back due to the mongols attack on the north of China and the lack of extra resources to fund the exhibitions. This could have proved a bad mistake, since he wasnt far off from reaching the Americas and claiming the territory under the name of China.

'''Navigator (Zheng He in Comparison to Columbus)'''

Zheng He (1405 - 1433) - 48 to 317 Ships and 28,000 Crew members

Columbus (1492) - 3 Ships and 90 Crew members

[[File:Zheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Zheng He's Ship compared to Columbus - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg here] for original source. Author Lars Plougmann]]

[[File:Zheng_He_map.jpg|300px|thumb|right|This controversial world map is believed by some to have been compiled by Zheng He. - Click [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Zhenghemap.jpg here] for original source. Author Toytoy]]

'''REFERENCES'''

1. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/zhenhe/131897.htm (Chinaculture.org June 14, 2005)

2. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=10387 (Zheng He's Voyages of Discovery)

Zheng He

2013-04-17T09:03:23Z

Christopher W:

'''Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433)'''

[[File:400px-Bronze_of_Zheng_He,_Jinghai_Si.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Zheng He - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABronze_of_Zheng_He%2C_Jinghai_Si.jpg here] for original source. Author Quentin Scouflaire]]

'''The early years'''

Zheng He also known as Cheng ho was born in Kunming city of Yunnan province in 1371 during the ming dynasty. His original surname was Ma, but was later changed to Zheng as an imperial honor.

He was raised as a Muslim and studied the teachings of Islam at an early age. Both his father and grandfather made the pilgrimage to Mecca and were familiar with far off lands. This is where his curiosity for the outside world began.

Zheng He was captured by the Ming dynasty forces during a military cleansing at the age of 10 where he was taken to Beijing and castrated, becoming a eunuch for the emperor, and lived within the imperial palace grounds. His main task was to serve Zhu Di, the prince of Yan and future emperor of China.

'''Young adulthood'''

Zheng He was extremely loyal and quite brilliant, which won the trust and friendship of the young prince Zhu Di. Zheng He served as the princes personal bodyguard and faught along side the prince in many battles, often influencing the victory and outcome of each battle with his miltary prowess. He also help the prince secure his position as the Emperor of China. Once the prince gained the imperial throne, he promoted Zheng He to the position of Grand Eunuch, leaving him in charge of the thousands of Eunuchs at the imperial palace.

'''His career'''

Zheng Hes career, gaining the trust of the emperor at a young age, allowed him to lead the path in exploration and was sent off with a crew of over 23,000 to explore the outside world. He was left to do much maritime exploration, foreign diplomacy, and military affairs. He did many voyages, reaching as far as East Africa, among much researching into astrology, geography, marine sciences, and shipbuilding and repair. He visited over 30 Asian and African countries and regions and led seven voyages. He was ultimately called back due to the mongols attack on the north of China and the lack of extra resources to fund the exhibitions. This could have proved a bad mistake, since he wasnt far off from reaching the Americas and claiming the territory under the name of China.

'''Navigator (Zheng He in Comparison to Columbus)'''

Zheng He (1405 - 1433) - 48 to 317 Ships and 28,000 Crew members

Columbus (1492) - 3 Ships and 90 Crew members

[[File:Zheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Zheng He's Ship compared to Columbus - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg here] for original source. Author Lars Plougmann]]
[[File:300px-Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg.png|300px|thumb|right|Map of Zheng He's Travels - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg here] for original source. Author Historicair.]]

[[File:Zheng_He_map.jpg|300px|thumb|left|This controversial world map is believed by some to have been compiled by Zheng He. - Click [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Zhenghemap.jpg here] for original source. Author Toytoy]]

'''REFERENCES'''

1. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/zhenhe/131897.htm (Chinaculture.org June 14, 2005)

2. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=10387 (Zheng He's Voyages of Discovery)

Zheng He

2013-04-17T09:02:36Z

Christopher W:

'''Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433)'''

[[File:400px-Bronze_of_Zheng_He,_Jinghai_Si.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Zheng He - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABronze_of_Zheng_He%2C_Jinghai_Si.jpg here] for original source. Author Quentin Scouflaire]]

'''The early years'''

Zheng He also known as Cheng ho was born in Kunming city of Yunnan province in 1371 during the ming dynasty. His original surname was Ma, but was later changed to Zheng as an imperial honor.

He was raised as a Muslim and studied the teachings of Islam at an early age. Both his father and grandfather made the pilgrimage to Mecca and were familiar with far off lands. This is where his curiosity for the outside world began.

Zheng He was captured by the Ming dynasty forces during a military cleansing at the age of 10 where he was taken to Beijing and castrated, becoming a eunuch for the emperor, and lived within the imperial palace grounds. His main task was to serve Zhu Di, the prince of Yan and future emperor of China.

'''Young adulthood'''

Zheng He was extremely loyal and quite brilliant, which won the trust and friendship of the young prince Zhu Di. Zheng He served as the princes personal bodyguard and faught along side the prince in many battles, often influencing the victory and outcome of each battle with his miltary prowess. He also help the prince secure his position as the Emperor of China. Once the prince gained the imperial throne, he promoted Zheng He to the position of Grand Eunuch, leaving him in charge of the thousands of Eunuchs at the imperial palace.

'''His career'''

Zheng Hes career, gaining the trust of the emperor at a young age, allowed him to lead the path in exploration and was sent off with a crew of over 23,000 to explore the outside world. He was left to do much maritime exploration, foreign diplomacy, and military affairs. He did many voyages, reaching as far as East Africa, among much researching into astrology, geography, marine sciences, and shipbuilding and repair. He visited over 30 Asian and African countries and regions and led seven voyages. He was ultimately called back due to the mongols attack on the north of China and the lack of extra resources to fund the exhibitions. This could have proved a bad mistake, since he wasnt far off from reaching the Americas and claiming the territory under the name of China.

'''Navigator (Zheng He in Comparison to Columbus)'''

Zheng He (1405 - 1433) - 48 to 317 Ships and 28,000 Crew members

Columbus (1492) - 3 Ships and 90 Crew members

[[File:Zheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Zheng He's Ship compared to Columbus - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg here] for original source. Author Lars Plougmann]]
[[File:300px-Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg.png|800px|thumb|right|Map of Zheng He's Travels - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg here] for original source. Author Historicair.]]

[[File:Zheng_He_map.jpg|300px|thumb|left|This controversial world map is believed by some to have been compiled by Zheng He. - Click [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Zhenghemap.jpg here] for original source. Author Toytoy]]

'''REFERENCES'''

1. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/zhenhe/131897.htm (Chinaculture.org June 14, 2005)

2. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=10387 (Zheng He's Voyages of Discovery)

Zheng He

2013-04-17T09:01:59Z

Christopher W:

'''Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433)'''

[[File:400px-Bronze_of_Zheng_He,_Jinghai_Si.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Zheng He - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABronze_of_Zheng_He%2C_Jinghai_Si.jpg here] for original source. Author Quentin Scouflaire]]

'''The early years'''

Zheng He also known as Cheng ho was born in Kunming city of Yunnan province in 1371 during the ming dynasty. His original surname was Ma, but was later changed to Zheng as an imperial honor.

He was raised as a Muslim and studied the teachings of Islam at an early age. Both his father and grandfather made the pilgrimage to Mecca and were familiar with far off lands. This is where his curiosity for the outside world began.

Zheng He was captured by the Ming dynasty forces during a military cleansing at the age of 10 where he was taken to Beijing and castrated, becoming a eunuch for the emperor, and lived within the imperial palace grounds. His main task was to serve Zhu Di, the prince of Yan and future emperor of China.

'''Young adulthood'''

Zheng He was extremely loyal and quite brilliant, which won the trust and friendship of the young prince Zhu Di. Zheng He served as the princes personal bodyguard and faught along side the prince in many battles, often influencing the victory and outcome of each battle with his miltary prowess. He also help the prince secure his position as the Emperor of China. Once the prince gained the imperial throne, he promoted Zheng He to the position of Grand Eunuch, leaving him in charge of the thousands of Eunuchs at the imperial palace.

'''His career'''

Zheng Hes career, gaining the trust of the emperor at a young age, allowed him to lead the path in exploration and was sent off with a crew of over 23,000 to explore the outside world. He was left to do much maritime exploration, foreign diplomacy, and military affairs. He did many voyages, reaching as far as East Africa, among much researching into astrology, geography, marine sciences, and shipbuilding and repair. He visited over 30 Asian and African countries and regions and led seven voyages. He was ultimately called back due to the mongols attack on the north of China and the lack of extra resources to fund the exhibitions. This could have proved a bad mistake, since he wasnt far off from reaching the Americas and claiming the territory under the name of China.

'''Navigator (Zheng He in Comparison to Columbus)'''

Zheng He (1405 - 1433) - 48 to 317 Ships and 28,000 Crew members

Columbus (1492) - 3 Ships and 90 Crew members

[[File:Zheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg|800px|thumb|left|Zheng He's Ship compared to Columbus - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg here] for original source. Author Lars Plougmann]]
[[File:788px-Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg.png|800px|thumb|right|Map of Zheng He's Travels - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg here] for original source. Author Historicair.]]

[[File:Zheng_He_map.jpg|800px|thumb|left|This controversial world map is believed by some to have been compiled by Zheng He. - Click [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Zhenghemap.jpg here] for original source. Author Toytoy]]

'''REFERENCES'''

1. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/zhenhe/131897.htm (Chinaculture.org June 14, 2005)

2. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=10387 (Zheng He's Voyages of Discovery)

Zheng He

2013-04-17T09:00:21Z

Christopher W:

'''Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433)'''

[[File:400px-Bronze_of_Zheng_He,_Jinghai_Si.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Zheng He - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABronze_of_Zheng_He%2C_Jinghai_Si.jpg here] for original source. Author Quentin Scouflaire]]

'''The early years'''

Zheng He also known as Cheng ho was born in Kunming city of Yunnan province in 1371 during the ming dynasty. His original surname was Ma, but was later changed to Zheng as an imperial honor.

He was raised as a Muslim and studied the teachings of Islam at an early age. Both his father and grandfather made the pilgrimage to Mecca and were familiar with far off lands. This is where his curiosity for the outside world began.

Zheng He was captured by the Ming dynasty forces during a military cleansing at the age of 10 where he was taken to Beijing and castrated, becoming a eunuch for the emperor, and lived within the imperial palace grounds. His main task was to serve Zhu Di, the prince of Yan and future emperor of China.

'''Young adulthood'''

Zheng He was extremely loyal and quite brilliant, which won the trust and friendship of the young prince Zhu Di. Zheng He served as the princes personal bodyguard and faught along side the prince in many battles, often influencing the victory and outcome of each battle with his miltary prowess. He also help the prince secure his position as the Emperor of China. Once the prince gained the imperial throne, he promoted Zheng He to the position of Grand Eunuch, leaving him in charge of the thousands of Eunuchs at the imperial palace.

'''His career'''

Zheng Hes career, gaining the trust of the emperor at a young age, allowed him to lead the path in exploration and was sent off with a crew of over 23,000 to explore the outside world. He was left to do much maritime exploration, foreign diplomacy, and military affairs. He did many voyages, reaching as far as East Africa, among much researching into astrology, geography, marine sciences, and shipbuilding and repair. He visited over 30 Asian and African countries and regions and led seven voyages. He was ultimately called back due to the mongols attack on the north of China and the lack of extra resources to fund the exhibitions. This could have proved a bad mistake, since he wasnt far off from reaching the Americas and claiming the territory under the name of China.

'''Navigator (Zheng He in Comparison to Columbus)'''

Zheng He (1405 - 1433) - 48 to 317 Ships and 28,000 Crew members

Columbus (1492) - 3 Ships and 90 Crew members

[[File:Zheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg|800px|thumb|left|Zheng He's Ship compared to Columbus - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg here] for original source. Author Lars Plougmann]]
[[File:788px-Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg.png|800px|thumb|right|Map of Zheng He's Travels - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg here] for original source.]]

[[File:Zheng_He_map.jpg|800px|thumb|left|This controversial world map is believed by some to have been compiled by Zheng He. - Click [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Zhenghemap.jpg here] for original source.]]

'''REFERENCES'''

1. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/zhenhe/131897.htm (Chinaculture.org June 14, 2005)

2. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=10387 (Zheng He's Voyages of Discovery)

Zheng He

2013-04-17T08:59:27Z

Christopher W:

'''Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433)'''

[[File:400px-Bronze_of_Zheng_He,_Jinghai_Si.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Zheng He - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABronze_of_Zheng_He%2C_Jinghai_Si.jpg here] for original source. Author Quentin Scouflaire]]

'''The early years'''

Zheng He also known as Cheng ho was born in Kunming city of Yunnan province in 1371 during the ming dynasty. His original surname was Ma, but was later changed to Zheng as an imperial honor.

He was raised as a Muslim and studied the teachings of Islam at an early age. Both his father and grandfather made the pilgrimage to Mecca and were familiar with far off lands. This is where his curiosity for the outside world began.

Zheng He was captured by the Ming dynasty forces during a military cleansing at the age of 10 where he was taken to Beijing and castrated, becoming a eunuch for the emperor, and lived within the imperial palace grounds. His main task was to serve Zhu Di, the prince of Yan and future emperor of China.

'''Young adulthood'''

Zheng He was extremely loyal and quite brilliant, which won the trust and friendship of the young prince Zhu Di. Zheng He served as the princes personal bodyguard and faught along side the prince in many battles, often influencing the victory and outcome of each battle with his miltary prowess. He also help the prince secure his position as the Emperor of China. Once the prince gained the imperial throne, he promoted Zheng He to the position of Grand Eunuch, leaving him in charge of the thousands of Eunuchs at the imperial palace.

'''His career'''

Zheng Hes career, gaining the trust of the emperor at a young age, allowed him to lead the path in exploration and was sent off with a crew of over 23,000 to explore the outside world. He was left to do much maritime exploration, foreign diplomacy, and military affairs. He did many voyages, reaching as far as East Africa, among much researching into astrology, geography, marine sciences, and shipbuilding and repair. He visited over 30 Asian and African countries and regions and led seven voyages. He was ultimately called back due to the mongols attack on the north of China and the lack of extra resources to fund the exhibitions. This could have proved a bad mistake, since he wasnt far off from reaching the Americas and claiming the territory under the name of China.

'''Navigator (Zheng He in Comparison to Columbus)'''

Zheng He (1405 - 1433) - 48 to 317 Ships and 28,000 Crew members

Columbus (1492) - 3 Ships and 90 Crew members

[[File:Zheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg|800px|thumb|left|Zheng He's Ship compared to Columbus - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg here] for original source.]]
[[File:788px-Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg.png|800px|thumb|right|Map of Zheng He's Travels - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AZheng-He-7th-expedition-map-cs.svg here] for original source.]]

[[File:Zheng_He_map.jpg|800px|thumb|left|This controversial world map is believed by some to have been compiled by Zheng He. - Click [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Zhenghemap.jpg here] for original source.]]

'''REFERENCES'''

1. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/zhenhe/131897.htm (Chinaculture.org June 14, 2005)

2. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=10387 (Zheng He's Voyages of Discovery)

Ming Dynasty

2013-04-17T08:52:40Z

Christopher W:

==Introduction==
[[File:mapming.jpg|thumb| Public Domain Wikipedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ming_foreign_relations_1580.jpg
]]
The Ming dynasty ruled China from 1368-1644. The Ming came to power in the wake of the collapse of the Mongol lead Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty would be the last ethnically chinese empire to rule China and was founded by the "first commoner to become emperor in 1500 years" (Ebrey 1993, 205), Zhu Yuanzhang. The early Ming dynasty could be characterized as a period of great growth for the region and "one of the most prosperous periods of Chinese history" (Ebrey 1993, 205). But in the end the Ming state would prove to be too weak and unable to adapt to the changing world around them, just when Europeans were expanding their advancements and bringing real competition to China (Ebrey 2010, 216).

==The Hongwu Emperor==

Zhu Yuanzhang was born to a poor family in the, present day, Fengyang, Anhui province. He was the eighth child born into his family. His parents struggled so much to feed their children that some of Zhu's siblings were actually given away. When Zhu Yuanzhang was sixteeen, the yellow river shifted its course and flooded the valley where his family lived. The resulting famine and epidemics in the region took the lives of his parents and all but one of his siblings. (Ebrey 2010, 190)

Poor and destitute, Zhu Yuanzhang looked to a local monastery for help. The monastery was inundated with large numbers of people seeking help. Soon after presenting himself to the monastery, Zhu Yuanzang was sent out to beg for alms. Zhu would spend several years wandering east-central china before returning to the monastery for a few years. During this time there was a local uprising in the region. The Mongol Yuan dynasty sought to repress this rebellion. In their attempt to quell the discontent the Yuan army burt Zhu's monastery to the ground(1352). (Ebrey 2010, 190)

During the chaos that was the final years of the Yuan dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang became a local rebel organizer for the Red Turbans, a branch of the White Lotus Society. Zhu Yuanzhang quickly rose up the ranks of the Red Turbans, his power and status increased greatly when he married the foster daughter of a Red Turban commander. He soon took command of his father-in-laws troops. In 1356, Zhu Yuanzhang's forces captured the city of Nanjing. (Ebrey 2010, 191)

Using the city of Nanjing as his base of operations, Zhu Yanzhang soon controlled the southeast and made it clear that he sought to set up an empire. In fighting amongst the Red Turban leadership ensued. Zhu's main competition came from Chen Youliang who controlled the Yangtze River Valley. The two forces fought form 1360-1363 cultivating in one of the largest naval battles in history, the Battle of Lake Poyang. Though Zhu did not completely distroy Chen's forces at the battle, Chen was dealt a defeat in which he could not recover from.

After a few years of cleaning uo the remaining opposition groups, Zhu Yanzhang became the Hongwu Emperor in 1368, and founded the Ming dynasty. He called his dynasty the Ming, which means brightness, to show China that they were coming out of the darkness which was Mongol rule.

==The Yongle Emperor==

The Hongwu Emperor died in 1398. Hongwu had out lived his eldest son and heir, so the title was passed down to his grandson Emperor Jianwen. Soon after Jiawen's assertion, a civil war broke out. Hongwu's fourth son Yongle, territorial leader of Beijing, laid claim to the thrown. After three years of infighting, the Yongle emperor took control as emperor of China. (Ebrey 2010, 193)

[[File:Yongle.jpg| Public Domain Wikipedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Yongle.jpg]]

The Yongle emperor moved the capital to Beijing, and began construction on the Forbidden City. Hundreds of thousands of workers were brought up to aid in the construction. In order to supply Beijing with enough grain, the Grand Canal was repaired and expanded. The Grand Canal is the largest artificial river. The Yongle emperor also repaired and expanded the Great Wall. His use of unpaid service created difficulties for Ming leaders that followed. There was so few legal sources for the government to increase revenue that administers where forced to exhaust the leagal sources. this lead to corruption and abuses. (Ebrey 2010, 194)
[[File:ZhengHe7thexpedition-map.png|thumb|]]
Yongle aslo commissioned some of the greatest explorations of all time. Zheng He was as muslim eunuch and trusted advisor to Yongle. Zheng He was appointed Grand Director and Chief Envoy. Zheng He would lead seven grand expeditions, traveling all over Asia and reaching East Africa (Ebrey 2010, 210). Gavin Menzies even claims that Zheng He was the first to travel to America in his book ''1491, The Year China Discovered America''.

==The Downfall of the Dynasty==

The Ming Dynasty ruled over on of the most prosperous times in Chinese history. But it failed in many respects.The Ming failed to control the affairs of China. The large Chinese bureaucracy was unable to adapt to the changing times. The Ming bureaucracy grew in size and inefficiency. Money was spent on thousands of members of the imperial entourage, while new sources of potential revenue were ignored. Policies were enacted to increase government control over maritime trade which ended up in chinese merchants becoming pirates. The Chinese economy was seeing a prosperous period and the government failed to take advantage. Mongols, Japanese and powerful eunuchs all went relatively unchecked. (Ebrey 2010, 214-15)

By the late Ming dynasty, the government was too inept to adjust to threats to the empire. Foreign invaders picked away at the peripheral territories, while natural disasters and famine lead to rebellions among the people. The Ming dynasty had lost it's Mandate of Heaven.

= Presentations, References, Weblinks =

==Classroom Presentation==

[[Media:MingDynasty.pptx]]

==See Also==
*[[Zheng He]]

*[[The Forbidden City]]

*[[The Great Wall of China]]

*[[Capitals: When, Where and Why they were moved]]

==References==

*Dreyer Edward. L. Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433. (Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2006).

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Chinese Civilization, A source book. Second Edition. (The Free Press, New York, NY, 1993).

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Second Edition. (Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, 2010).

Liao Dynasty 907-1125 CE

2013-04-17T08:47:35Z

Christopher W:

The '''Liao Dynasty 907-1125 CE''' was the first of the dynasties of conquest. It was founded by the Grand Kahn Abouji in 907. It was founded as the Khitan Empire, but would later be known as the Liao Dynasty. At the peak of its power, the Liao Dynasty encompassed Mongolia and parts of Manchuria and a small strip of China Proper. They developed a system of dual governments to rule over both Khitan and Han Chinese peoples. The dynasty would last until 1125 when the Khitans were conquered by the Jurchen people.
== Beginnings ==
=== The Khitan ===

The Khitan were a proto-mongolian people from the steppe of Manchuria. Like the other peoples on the steppe, the Khitan were a tribal, nomadic people. They practiced agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting. Horses were an important part of life for the Khitan, all men learned to ride and shoot and were potential warriors. The Khitan family unit was a clan, and many different clans formed a tribe. A tribal chief would be selected to lead a tribe based on military acumen. A tribe alone was relatively weak but a confederation of tribes united posed a significant military threat. Decisions were not made by a single leader, rather decisions were made from a meeting of all the tribe leaders in the confederation. (Ebrey 164-167)
=== Their Dealings with the Tang ===
In times of peace Khitan tribes largely kept to themselves. Only in times of warfare would the tribes unite into a confederation and a leader elected. This made the Khitan weak and vulnerable. When China was strong, they were drawn into their influence. When China was weak, the Khitan became vassals to other nomadic peoples on the steppe. When the Tang Dynasty came into power they projected their influence onto the northern steppe. The Khitan were drawn into the Tang Tributary system. The Khitan and the Tang would occasionally enjoy times of good relations. During the good times, some members of the Khitan Li tribe were appointed to office and noble ranks in the Tang court. Several Khitan even served as Tang generals. The alliance between the Khitan and Tang would not last for very long. Internal turmoil beween the Khitan tribes caused relations to deteriorate. A series of rebellions by the Khitan would attempt to free themselves of Tang control, but each time the Khitan were routed by the Tang military. The Khitan did not take advantage of times of Tang weakness. This was mostly as a result of the Khitan being vassals to the Uighars who had assumed control of the steppe region. By the time of the Uighars' collapse, the Khitan were on good terms with the Tang and had renewed their alliance. (Franke & Twitchett, The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 6, 44-51)
After the collapse of the Uighars, the Khitan were freed from their domination. This left a power vacuum and an opportunity for the Khitan to expand into the steppe and Manchuria. The Khitan were not necessarily interested in expanding into China. Rather they just wanted Chinese wealth, Chinese manufactures, and Chinese captives. In essence this fostered a trade relationship where the Khitan would receive what they wanted in exchange for the "fine horses" they were famous for. By the end of the 9th century the Tang was in decline The Tang would cease to exist as a centralized power. The empire was divided up into 50 provincial governments each ruled by its own governor. The emperor became powerless. (Franke and Twitchett, 53-55)
=== The Rise of Abaoji ===
Even though the Tang was self-destructing, the Chinese border provinces were powerful and heavily militarized. These strong border defenses would repel Khitan raids and on occasion would cross the border into Khitan territory and would destroy their crops and take Khitan people prisoners. This agressive stance that these provinces took on the Khitan would be the catalyst that would unite the Khitan tribes into a nation. The man who founded the Khitan state and later the Liao Dynasty was Abaoji. (Franke and Twitchett, 56)
==== Abaoji ====
Hello I am Abaoji. I was born in 872 CE into the Yelu tribe. My father was the chief of my tribe. My uncle was the ''yu-yueh'', or commander in chief of the military in your English language. Because of my family connections I quickly rose to prominence. I was a man of high stature and intelligence and I even knew Chinese. I kept my knowledge of Chinese from my fellow Khitan out of fear of exposing them to Chinese ideas that would cause them to lose their identity. I was a competent military commander and I would often conduct raids into China. In 901 I was elected chieftain of my tribe. I mounted a campaign to unite the steppe and to extend Khitan influence over other tribes. My campaign was successful. I united ten Khitan tribes into a federation and secured the steppe. In 907 I was elected Grand Kahn of the Khitan by the tribal chieftains. Here I became the undisputed leader of the Khitan. (Franke & Twitchett, 56-60)

== The Liao Dynasty ==
Abaoji founded the Liao Dynasty in 907 CE. There is a debate over this date,The debate is whether the Liao Dynasty started in 907 or 916. Abaoji became Grand Kahn in 907. He didn't become emperor until 916. Franke and Twitchett argue that Liao historians saw 907 as a convenient date to start their dynasty since it coincided with the end of the Tang Dynasty (60). Chronologically it made sense to them. In the time between 907 and 916, Abaoji would further consolidate his power and put down rebellions within his own family. In 916 he formally declared himself emperor of the Khitan and the first emperor of the Liao Dynasty. He was now known as Emperor Taizu. Emperor Taizu established a hereditary system of succession. This was in contrast to the Khitan tradition of election by the tribal leaders. Taizu took steps to make his regime permanent. He built a capital city, the Supreme Capital at Lin-huang. He would later build Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist temples in his capital city.
=== Liao Rule ===
At the peak of the Liao Dynasty's power, it ruled over most of Mongolia, Manchuria, and a small strip of China Proper around Beijing. It acquired sixteen Chinese prefectures in 938. The Khitan numbered about 750,000 and ruled over 2-3 million Chinese. This led to a dual state system of government in which the empire was split into northern and southern regions. The northern region was predominately Khitan while the southern region was Chinese. The Chinese living in the southern region played a big role in the government. The south was run by the bureaucratic institutions of the Tang. The Liao used the Tang examination system to choose candidates to fill positions in the southern government (Wittfogel, 17). In the south important administrative functions were left to the Chinese. The northern government was a mobile operation. The emperor and his court moved from place to another depending on the season. The north was administered by tribal leaders, high ranking Chinese officials, and imperial relatives. Khitan institutions and traditions were kept in place in the north. Keeping the Khitan language and the Khitan script in use in the north allowed the Khitan to resist sinification. The ruling elite became adept in both Khitan and Chinese ways, but the majority of the Khitans preserved their traditions.
The Khitan were able to keep a hold on their power by intimidating their neighbors. The Song found it easier to pay tribute to the Liao than face them in battle. This effectively bought peace between the two empires. The Liao also intimidated the Koreans as well as the Tanguts. (Ebrey, 166-167)
==== Khitan Script ====
The Khitan language was a type of altaic language that resembles Mongolian, Turkic, and Tangusic. The language is considered a lost language so there is very little that is known about it. The Khitan did develop a writing script and there are examples that remain today. The Khitan script was introduced in 920. The script resembles either simple Chinese characters or artificially constructed characters. It seems that the Khitan script was greatly influenced by Chinese characters. (Franke and Twitchett, 31)

===== Contemporary Commentator =====
Abaoji wasn't a stranger to Chinese ways. He had a good understanding about Chinese traditions and language. It is plausible that he would want to model a Khitan script after Chinese. A lot of things in the Liao dynasty have been modeled after Chinese institutions in one way or another. It is only logical to continue that in a writing script.

== The Downfall ==
=== The Jurchen Encroachment ===
The Khitan were undone by another tribal people. The Jurchen were Tungusic people from Eastern Manchuria. They were powerful enough that the Song had considered allying with them against the Khitan. The largest group of Jurchen and the ones that would prove to be the biggest threat were the "wild" Jurchen. The Liao didn't really have control of the "wild" Jurchen. Eventually a clan from the "wild" Jurchen, the Wanyan, started to gradually take over and establish dominance over the other Jurchen tribes. Aguda soon came into power. He started a campaign of aggression against the Khitan. In 1115 Aguda declared himself Emperor of a new dynasty, the Jin. Aguda soon attacked the Liao. The Song saw this as an opportunity to retake the sixteen prefectures that the Khitan controlled. The Song entered into an alliance with the Jin and they both attacked the Khitan. The Song weren't much help though, they attempted an invasion of the Souther Capital but were repelled by the Khitan. The Jin stepped in and took the capital for themselves. By now the Jin controlled most of the Liao territory. In 1125, the Liao Emperor, Tianzuo was captured. His capture marked the end of the Liao Dynasty. (Franke and Twitchett, 140-151)

=== Western Liao Dynasty ===
Even though the Liao Dynasty was finished, a few Khitan survived and escaped the Jin. The commander in chief of the Khitan, Tashi managed to escape to northern Mongolia with a few followers. Tashi declared himself emperor and gathered the support of local tribes. Tashi and his followers headed west into Central Asia. Here he established a new empire which was known as the Western Liao Dynasty. This empire would last until 1218 when it was conquered by the Mongols. (Franke and Twitchett, 151-153)

== References ==
*De Bary, WM. Theodore, and Irene Bloom, eds. Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol 1, From Earliest Times to 1600. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.

*Ebrey, Patricia. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

*Lary, Diana. Chinese Migrations: The Movement of People, Goods, and Ideas Over Four Millennia. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2012.

*Twitchett, Denis, and John K. Fairbank, eds. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 5, Part One: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907-1279. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

*Twitchett, Denis, and Herbert Franke, eds. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

*Wittfogel, Karl A., "Public Office in The Liao Dynasty and The Chinese Examination System", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jun., 1947), pp. 13-40

== Classroom Presentations ==
[[File:Southern_Song_and_Liao_Dynasties_Presentation.pptx]]

A View from the outside: Korea, the Yuan and the rise of the Ming

2013-04-17T08:44:49Z

Christopher W:

= Introduction =
The fall of the Yuan Dynasty and the rise of the Ming effected more than just China. The Koryo Dynasty of Korea was closely allied to the Yuan and, shortly after the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, the Koryo also fell. It was replaced by the Yi Dynasty, Korea's last Dynasty.

= Koryo and the rise of the Yuan =

When the Mongols took Bejing, the capital of Chinese state of Jin in 1215, it was the beginning of the end for the Jin Dynasty. It was also the end of Koroy's relative isolation. When bands of Khitan's from north of the Yalu river invaded northern Korea, the Mongols joined forces with Koryo to drive them out. Because of this, the Mongols considered Koryo in their debt and they established a base in North Eastern Korea. The Koreans objected to this usurpation of their lands and for the next 30 years, the Mongols and the Koreans fought for control of the Korean peninsula. (Lee, pp147-149)

Koryo was under the control of a military dictator for 100 years (1170-1270). The King and his civilian government had no real power during this time, so, when the Mongols began to assert their control of Koryo lands, there was no question of Koryo's response- they would fight. Although there were one or two attempts to peacefully resolve the conflict between the two nations, in the end the military won. They moved the Koryo capital onto an island, Kangwha Island, just barely off the west coast of Korea. The Mongols were unfamiliar with the sea and weren't able to attack them on this island. Since Korea sent most of their taxes by sea, the government was able to continue to rule Korea without too much interference. The Mongols sent 6 invasion forces into Korea during this time, but they were unable to defeat the Koryo forces.

At first, the people of Korea firmly supported the government. The people left their lands and moved onto islands or into the mountains. This support lasted until the Mongols began burning the farmlands. The peasants watched their crops go up in smoke, but the military government continued to demand their taxes. As the fighting continued, popular support for the war diminished.(Lee, pp149)

In an attempt to gain aid from Heaven, the Korean government supported the creation of the ''Koreana Tripitaka'', over 80,000 woodblocks upon which was carved the entire Buddhist Scripture. [[File:Haeinsa-_Tripitaka_Koreana.jpg‎|200px|thumb|left|The Koreana Tripitaka in storage at Haeinsa Temple.Photo by Caspian blue. Click [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg here] for original source.]] An earlier set of the woodblocks were burned, as a sacrifice, when the invasions began. This new set was intended to show Korea's continued devotion to Buddha. The government hoped to gain heavenly assistance by this act of piety. (These woodblocks still exist today and are still usable for printing copies.)(Lee, pp150)

While the Military government was occupied with fighting the Mongols, the King and a few dissident military officials favored another course of action, peace. In 1258, the last military dictator was assassinated and , with the King now in control of the government, a peace delegation was sent to the Mongols and an agreement was reached. The Crown Prince of Korea took the proposal himself to the Mongols. He would marry one of Kublai Khan's daughters, become King of Koryo, and Koryo (Korea) would become a Son-in-law nation of the Mongol Empire.

For the next 12 years the military attempted to regain control. They even, briefly, deposed the King. But the people were tired of war and the Mongols sent support to the king. In 1270, the government moved back to the mainland (to the old capital of Kaesong) where it would remain until the end of the dynasty in 1392. (Lee, pp150-151)

= The rise of the Ming and the fall of Koryo =

For the next century, or so, the Koryo royal family maintained their close ties to the Mongol (Yuan) Dynasty. the Korean royalty was, at least, half Mongol. They adopted Mongol customs and dress. The Crown Prince was raised in the Mongol Court. As far as the Yuan were concerned, Koryo was part of them. The Korean people, however, weren't so sure. Many of them resisted the foreign ideals their King supported.

While the royal family enjoyed their relationship with the Yuan, other noble families in Korea also saw a chance to increase their power. They seized lands and slaves and, before long, even began to rival the royal family in power. (Lee, pp155- 159) As long as they maintained close ties with the Yuan (and the Yuan had the strength to interfere with Koryo politics), there was little the King could do to check their abuses. It wasn't until 1351, when the rising Ming dynasty forces began pushing the Yuan north, that the situation changed. With the Yuan on the run, the King of Koryo, King Kongmin, declared an end to Yuan support. He abolished the Yuan liaison office, purged the government of pro-Yuan supporters, restored the old government structure and took back the Northeastern territory. Pro-Yuan Koryo supporters tried to assassinate the King and the Yuan government proclaimed that he had been deposed. King Kongmin survived, and, in 1368 when the new Ming Dynasty was established in China, he immediately declared his government support and sent envoys to China.

In Korea, however, the nobility was fighting back. They enjoyed their power and objected to the new laws that stripped them of their stolen lands and reduced their influence at court. When King Kongmin gave a Buddhist monk, Sin Ton, power to enact sweeping reforms of the Koryo government, the powerful noble families fought back. While the people of Korea cheered and considered Sin Ton a saint, the nobles plotted his death and, in 1375, they killed King Kongmin too.

The new King, King U was an 11 year old boy and the story went out that he wasn't Kongmin's son at all, but the son of a slave woman and the monk Sin Ton. King U was supported by a powerful miltary family and they immediately rejected Kongmin's Pro-Ming position. They restored the Pro-Yuan faction to control. While the fist Ming Emperor, Taizu, worked to consolidate control of China, Koryo was plotting with the Yuan.

In early 1388, the Ming government declared their intention to build a garrison in Northeastern Korea (where the old Yuan garrison had been) thus taking these lands away from Koryo.

This infuriated the Koryo government and Choi Yong (one of Koryo's greatest generals) assembled an army to invade the Liao-tung region of Manchuria. The army marched north with Choi Yong and Yi Song-Gye in command. Yi Song-gye objected to the orders, and, before the army crossed the Yalu river, he assasinated Choi Yong, took command of the army and turned it back to Kaesong. He removed King U and placed another member of the royal family on the throne for a few years, but, eventually, in 1392, he took the throne himself and declared the start of a new dynasty, the Yi dynasty. This new dynasty firmly allied themselves to the Ming.(Lee, pp161-164)

= Conclusion =
The interactions between the ruling Dynasties of China and Korea are an example of how internal events in China affected the nearby nations. The Mongol conquest gave the Koryo civilian government the chance to seize control from the military. Yuan support gave noble families the chance to amass great power. The rise of the Ming Dynasty led directly to the fall of the Koryo dynasty in Korea. Though all this time, the Korean nation was able to maintain it's status as an independent, although allied, nation. It was known in China as a model tributary nation.

= References =

Lee, Ki-baik. "A New History of Korea". Seoul, Ilchokak Publishers, 1984, 3d ed.

Southern Song Dynasty 1127-1279 CE

2013-04-17T08:35:30Z

Christopher W:

The '''Southern Song Dynasty 1127-1279 CE''' was established in 1127 after the conquest of the Northern Song by the Jurchen (Jin Dynasty). The distinction between Northern and Southern Song dynasties is where the capital is located. The Southern Song capital was established at Hangzhou. The Song allied with the Jin to defeat the Liao Dynasty, after the defeat an alliance formed between the Jin and the Song. The alliance soon fell apart and the Jin turned on the Song. The Jin pushed the Song south past the Huai River where they held their ground and established the Northern border between the Jin and the Southern Song.
== Beginnings ==
After the defeat of the Khitan, the Song thought they had found a new ally in the Jurchen. After all they had just fought in battle together and defeated the powerful Khitan. They came up with a formal treaty of alliance in 1123. This treaty ceded Yenching and six surrounding prefectures to the Song. Not quite the sixteen prefectures that the Song hoped to take back from the Khitan. In return the Song would pay the Jin annual tribute payments of silver and silk while also providing a one time payment of "one million strings of cash." The border between the Jin and the Song was to be closed off and neither side agreed to take in defectors. The Song were the losers in this treaty. They only received a fraction of the territory that they wanted and they had to pay for it. The Song were not being treated with respect. The Song would soon violate the terms of the treaty which would lead to a falling out. (Fairbank and Twitchett, 632)
=== Pushed to the South ===
The violation of the treaty by the Song led to the collapse of the alliance. The Jin moved to attack the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1126. They laid siege to the capital for almost two months. The city's defenses were obliterated by the attack and the Jin entered the city. They procedeed to loot the city and "emptied the palace treasure houses of imperial seals, jewels, antiquities, rare books, art objects, and ritual implements." (Fairbank and Twitchett, 642) They then captured members of the imperial family. Emperor Huizong had abdicated in favor of his song Quizong who was now Emperor. Quizong and his councillors were captured and held hostage by the Jin while the city was plundered of all its riches. Emperor Huizong attempted to escape to the south but was capture by the Jin in the middle of his escape. He was brought back to Kaifeng. Both Huizong and Quizong where stripped of their imperial status by the Jin court. This was the end of the Northern Song. The Song were on the brink of elimination. There was still hope. The youngest son of Emperor Huizong, Gaozong had managed to escape the JIn and make it to the south. There Chinese loyalists organized a new government and established the Southern Song with its capital at Hangzhou and proclaimed Gaozong emperor. The remains of the Song army continued fighting a war of insurgency against the Jin. By 1138 the region had stabilized and the Southern Song controlled most of the area south of the Huai River. (Ebrey 150)
== The Southern Song ==
=== Southern Song Rule ===

In 1142 the Southern Song and the JIn concluded a treaty that stipulated that the Song pay annual tribute payments to the Jin. This effectively bought peace between the two empires. This arrangement was similar to one between the Song and the Liao. Some scholars see this payment of tribute by a Chinese dynasty to a foreign dynasty as humiliating. Because of this the Southern Song is considered a weak dynasty. It is seen as a vassal state under Jin influence and domination. Likewise Emperor Gaozong is seen as a weak ruler because he was unable to avenge the defeat of the Song or was able to recover the territory lost to the Jin. (Fairbank and Twitchett, 644) Yet to some the Song was seen as the cultural high point in China. This cultural high point is typified by "a period of refined beauty and cultivation, in which ceramics, painting, and calligraphy all reached new heights that have never been matched since." (Lary 47) The examination system of the Tang was developed further and used to staff the bureaucratic government with men of high caliber. The whole bureaucratic system was further refined and improved. Astronomy, mathematics, and cartography flourished. People were on the search for knowledge during the Southern Song dynasty. (Ibid)
=== Economy ===

The capital in the south stimulated economic development. Goods could be transported more economically to Hangzhou by boat through the network of rivers and canals traversing the region. The Jin and the Song still had a trade relationship. The Jin continued to import vast quantities of tea, rice, sugar, and books from the south. (Ebrey 150) The ports of Guangzhou, Fuzhou, and Quanzhou became major maritime trading centers for trade in the southern oceans. New advances in nautical technology such as the magnetic compass allowed ships to sail across the seas in open water instead of hugging the coast. This spurned the development of stronger and more seaworthy ships. The ships of the Southern Song period were stronger and studier than their western counterparts. (Lary, 48-49)
=== Confucianism in the Southern Song ===
Confucian scholars were frustrated with the failure to regain the north. They saw middle China as the cultural center and they wanted to get it back.
They advocated ways of reforming society by starting at the bottom with families and communities. They established academies and published books to spread their message.
Zhu Xi was one of these advocates and played an active role in establishing academies. He focused on the “investigation of things,” he taught his followers to figure out how things work for themselves.
The expansion of printing allowed ideas and practices to spread. Ordinary people had access to knowledge they didn’t have access to before. People were learning new things and ideas.
== The End of the Song ==
=== The Mongolian Threat ===
Genghis Khan and the Mongols began a campaign of conquest across Asia. He succeeded in conquering Mongolia and Manchuria. He pushed the Jurchen south past the Yellow River.
In 1234 Ogodei, the song of Genghis, crushed the Jin and took over north China. The next ruler, Khubilai established the Yuan Dynasty in 1271 and moved to attack the Song.
=== Overrun ===
After a siege of Xiangyang that lasted five years, the Mongols crossed the Yangzi. In 1279, in a naval battle off the coast of Guandong, the last of the Song loyalists were defeated ending the Song Dynasty.
== References ==
*De Bary, WM. Theodore, and Irene Bloom, eds. Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol 1, From Earliest Times to 1600. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.

*Ebrey, Patricia. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

*Lary, Diana. Chinese Migrations: The Movement of People, Goods, and Ideas Over Four Millennia. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2012.

*Twitchett, Denis, and John K. Fairbank, eds. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 5, Part One: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907-1279. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

*Twitchett, Denis, and John K. Fairbank, eds. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
== Classroom Presentations ==
[[File:Southern_Song_and_Liao_Dynasties_Presentation.pptx]]

Footbinding

2013-04-17T08:34:00Z

Christopher W: /* End of Footbinding */

There is some disagreement about when footbinding began in China. It has been suggested that it began as early as the Shang Dynasty and as late as the Song Dynasty.(Ebrey, 160) At the very least though, the custom lasted for well over a thousand years, until well into the 20th Century. These pictures are all of women from the late 19th or early 20th Century

[[File:5_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Size comparison: regular size woman's shoe (from WWI era), woman's bound feet & a teacup. Photo by by otisarchives3.Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/22719239@N04/2283064557/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]

These pictures show only the result of footbinding, not the terrible and excruciatingly painful process by which these result were obtained.

=Origins=
Even though there are some disagreements about when exactly footbinding began, there is a general time frame for when it likely started. Footbinding possibly originated during the fifty years between the Tang and Song dynasties, roughly 907-959 A.D. During this time it wasfashionable for women to walk slowly and sway. Also,both men and women compressed their feet moderately. Between 750-1100 A.D. footbinding became a female custom and spread to all parts of society. The practice originated in the north, and followed the migration patterns and moved its way south. Footbindng did not become as prevalent in the South as it did in the North, primarily due to the fact that women were a larger part of the labor force in the South(Greenhalgh 8)

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.), footbinding received popular and official sanction. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 A.D.) the custom of footbinding was so prevalent that when the first Manchu Emperor in 1644 attempted to ban the custom, but failed. In the nineteenth century, footbinding reached its highest prevelance. This is an interesting fact considering the ruling dynasty did not practice footbinding. (Greenhalgh 8)

=== Story of First Footbinding ===

In the Southern Tang Dynasty (961-975 A.D.), the court of the Emperor Li Yu had a large number of courtesans and dancers. Among these dancers, Li Yu had a favorite. Her name was Yao-niang. Li Yu built her a six foot high golden lotus. This golden lotus was covered with jewels, pearls, and golden threads. Li Yu then ordered Yao-niang to bind her feet with strips of white silk, making them small, graceful, and in the shape of the crescent moon. Yao-niang was then supposed to dance on this golden lotus. (Greenhalgh 8-9)

After this, the term "golden lotus" became a euphemism for bound feet, because of the resemblance between a bound foot and a lotus. The bound foot became the aesthetic ideal and fashionable. (Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though it is not necessarily known who bound the first feet, The story of the first bound foot shows what the ideal was for the custom of footbinding.

=Who Had Their Feet Bound?=
Footbinding could be seen in girls and women throughout the different social classes, however it was seen less in lower social classes becuase of the need for women being able to work. Footbinding usually began around age five or six. However, in upper class footbinding sometimes started at age three, and in lower classes it did not happen until the age twelve or thirteen. This process was always done by the mother or grandmother. Mothers did this to their daughter in hopes of finding a husband for their daughters and to keep or raise the family's social standing.(Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though footbinding custom and was done in lower class families, it was not always economically possible to bind the feet of all the daughters. In the lower class, the daughters feet were only bound if there was hope for marrying them into higher status families. In this situation, girls feet were bound late compared to girls in higher-class families. The bindings on these girls were not bound nearly as tight which allowed the girls to do household chores, work in fields, or find indoor employment. (Greenhalgh, 8)

For the families that could not afford to bind their daughters feet, the feet were left normal. These girls then worked in the fields or in shops of carpenters or blacksmiths. (Greenhalgh, 8)

=How to Bind Feet=

[[File:footbinding_schema.JPG|600px|thumb|right|Comparison of a normal foot and a foot that has gone through the footbinding process. Image by Marco L.]]

When a young girl was about 6 years old her feet would be bound for the first time. First, her feet would usually be soaked in a mixture of liquids (the ingredients varied- anything from plain water to animal blood) believed to soften the bones for the work ahead. Then, her toenails were cut and her four smaller toes were folded under the main part of the foot and tightly wrapped. (Often the bones in these toes were broken at this time. If they were not broken now, they would be later.) Then the entire foot was tightly wrapped around both the foot and the ankle, to draw the ball of the foot as close as possible to the heel. As the wrappings dried, the foot would be bound even tighter pulling the ball of the foot even closer to the heel and deforming (sometimes even breaking) the arch of the foot. The young girl would be required to walk on her bound feet, breaking the smaller toes, if not already broken. Eventually, if the procedure did not cost her her life, her feet would heal in the new position. The pain would never entirely go away. Frequently her feet would became infected and sometimes some of the flesh would die and need to be removed. This was considered a good thing because it allowed the foot to be bound even more tightly. All of this so that a mother could give her daughter the smallest possible feet, ideally 3 inches long (Ebrey,160)

Here is an account of the footbinding process from someone who endured the process:

"Born into an old-fashioned family at P'ing-hsi,

I was inflicted with the pain of footbinding when I

was was seven years old . . . I wept and hid in a neighbor's

home, but mother found me, scolded me, and

dragged me home. She shut the bedroom door, boiled

water, and from a box withdrew binding, shoes, knife,

needle, and thread . . . She washed and placed alum

on my feet and cut the toenails. She then bent my

toes toward the plantar with a binding cloth ten

feet long and two inches wide, doing the right foot

first and then the left. She finished binding and

ordered me to walk, but when I did the pain proved

unbearable.

That night, mother wouldn't let me remove the

shoes. My feet felt on fire and I couldn't sleep;

mother struck me for crying . . . The feet were

washed and rebound after three or four days, with

alum added. After several months, all toes but the

big one were pressed against the inner surface . . .

Mother would remove the bindings and wipe the blood

and pus which dripped from my feet. She told me

that only with removal of the flesh could my feet

become slender. If I mistakenly punctured a sore,

the blood gushed like a stream.

Every two weeks, I changed to new shoes. Each

new pair was one- to two-tenths of an inch smaller

than the previous one . . . After changing more than

ten pairs of shoes, my feet were reduced to a little

over four inches . . . Four of the toes were curled

in like so many dead caterpillars; no outsider

would ever have believed that they belonged to a

human being. It took two years to achieve the

three-inch model . . ." (Greenhalgh, 9)

By reading an account of the process from someone who actually endured it, makes it a little easier to understand what women went through. About one out of ten girls died from the process of footbinding, or the effects it had after it was done. A higher percentage of the deaths from footbinding would have occured in the countryside. This was due to the fact that in the countryside there was not as much knowledge on how to fight infections.(Greenhalgh, 9-10)

=Care of Bound=
[[File:12_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Not just in China. This woman is from Toronto. Photo by Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library. Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/thomasfisherlibrary/6235264222/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]
[[File:footbinding_shoes.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Photo of the type of shoes women with bound feet wore. Photo by Queensland Museum]]
The pain from footbinding never fully went away. Only women who had mothers who were skilled at the process had the pain subside after a year or two. At this time, it became the woman's job to care for her bound feet. Caring for bound feet was always done in private, because the possibility of someone seeing the unbound foot was considered taboo.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Once a week, women would soak their bandaged feet in hot water. They would then remove the bandages, and any dead skin or calluses would be rubbed and cut off. Women also had to perfume their feet in order to hide the smell. The feet were then kneaded into the desired shape, dusted with alum, and rebound quickly in order to preserve the shape. (Greenhalgh, 10)

Embroidered shoes with one or two inch wooden heels were worn. The shoes were shaped in order to help women walk with their now mishaped feet. The heels helped balance and support the body. Women usually had more than one pair of shoes, if they could afford them, including a pair for special occasions. (Greenhalgh, 10)

The ankles of women with bound feet were affected the footbinding process. Ankles were swollen and deformed, and in order to hide this women wore leggings which were fastened above the calf and hung down far enough just to show the tiny foot in its embroidered shoes.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Walking on these poor feet, was an exercise in pain. After all, the women's toes were now tucked into the sole of her feet. To walk, she either had to walk on her toes, or, learn to walk on just her heels (It is not easy to do.) Walking only on your heals gave these women a certain characteristic walk. Women whose feet were not bound, wanted to be able to walk the same way. So, they created special shoes to help them.

=Role in Marriage=

One of the main roles footbinding played was increasing the marriagablilty of the daughters in a household. Marriage was a way to assure continuity of the patrilineal line. When a family had a daughter, their concern was to raise her as cheaply as possible. This was due to the fact that girls left the family and could not help the family economically. This meant the main task for the family was to ensure that their daughters would marry into a good family. In order to make a daughter marriageable they had to be brought up in strict accordance of correct female behavior. The correct way for women behave was outlined in the Three Obediences and the Four Virtues.

'''Three Obediences''':

''Before a woman is married she must obey her father''

''When married, she must live for her husband''

''And as a widow she must serve her sons''

The three obediences were in ''Precepts for Women'' in the 2nd Century A.D. by Nu Chieh.(Greenhalgh, 12)

'''Four Virtues''':

''Woman’s Behavior: chaste and yielding, calm and upright''

''Woman’s Speech: not talkative, yet agreeable''

''Woman’s Carriage and Appearance: restrained and exquisite''

''Woman’s Occupation: handiwork, embroidery.'' (Greenhalgh, 12)

Women had to follow the standard of how they were supposed to live because there was no socially acceptable alternative for getting married, other than becoming a concubine. The goal of parents was to rear daughter to make best marriage match possible. The best marriage was usually to someone of a higher social status. The advantage of marrying a daughter into a family of higher status was political. By marrying thier daughter to a higher social status,the family was either able to get someone from the family into a political office, or they would now have a member of the daughters family in a political office. By knowing someone in a political, members of the brides family would be able to get immunity from political exploitation. (Greenhalgh, 13)

There were also a few economic benefits of marrying a daughter to a family of higher status. The primary economic gaim was a gift of money the grooms family sent to the brides family. The brides famiily also could possibly get loans or have business deals with the grooms family. Even with the possible financial gains, the political gains were better for the family. (Greenhalgh, 13)

Along with the family benefits, there were benefits for the bride if she married a man in a higher social status. The higher she married, the less physical work she would have to do. (Greenhalgh, 13)

When a woman married, she moved into her husbands family "compound." There lived her and her husband, mother-in-law, father-in-law, and any brothers of her husband and their wives. In this living situation, the mother-in-law held all the domestic power. By a having their feet bound prevented women from becoming disruptive. Women were continuously under the watchful eye of the mother-in-law and were unable to wander and earn any money of their own. Women in this situation also had little say in the decisions that affected their lives because of the control her in-laws held. (Greenhalgh, 14)

At some point, the family compound would be split up into separate households. This was not a good thing for the mother-in-law because she lost the power she held over her daughter-in-laws. This change of living situations was beneficial to the daughter-in-law because she now had control over her own life. (Greenhalgh, 15)

Footbinding became a self-repetitive cycle. "The family system demanded footbound wives to do its domestic and reproductive tasks: and footbound wives, physically constrained from doing otherwise, reinforced the power structures which strengthened the system." (Greenhalgh, 15)

=End of Footbinding=

Footbinding wasn't always legal in China. The Qing Dynasty outlawed footbinding, but the law was mostly ignored and women continued to bind their daughter's feet. The Qing Dynasty was not run by Han Chinese, and therefore they did not practice the footbinding custom.

Reform for footbinding did not come from within China, it came from the intrusion of Western imperialism in the 19th century. Western missionaries and urban,upperclass Chinse began to put together natural-foot societies. These societies sent out pamphlets with propaganda such as:

"The present is no time of peace. Foreign women have natural feet; they are daring, and can defend themselves; whilst Chinese women have bound feet, and are too weak even to bear the weight of their own clothes..." (Greenhalgh, 15)

During this time of reform, there also was an increase in industrialization. Industrialization created jobs for women outside of the home. With new work outside of the family compound, women with bound feet not as able to get out. This led to women with unbound feet able to get of the house. The custom of binding feet slowed modernization because it kept such a large number of possible workers at home. (Greenhalgh, 15)

The increase of Westerners also influenced the downfall of footbinding. Footbinding was ridiculed by Westerners, and in order to prevent national humiliation, the custom of footbinding needed to be given up. New leaders in 1912 after overthrowing Manchu dynasty passed number of strict anti-footbinding decrees. (Greenhalgh, 16)

'''1929 survey''':

2.3% girls born before 1900 had unbound feet

95.1% girls born after 1910 had unbound feet

This survey shows the dramatic decrease in custom of footbinding. Women who already had bound feet were unlikely to follow laws and unbind their feet. This was primarily because of the pain and slim chance foot would regain natural shape. (Greenhalgh, 16)

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

= Classroom Presentation =
[[Media:Footbinding.pptx]] by Mallory Wilsted

= Works Cited =
Ebrey, Patrica Buckley. "The Cambridge Illustrated History of China". New York, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 2d ed.

Greenhalgh, Susan. “Bound Feet, Hobbled Lives: Women in Old China.” ''Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies''. Vol. 2, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), pp. 7- 21

Footbinding

2013-04-17T08:33:32Z

Christopher W: /* How to Bind Feet */

There is some disagreement about when footbinding began in China. It has been suggested that it began as early as the Shang Dynasty and as late as the Song Dynasty.(Ebrey, 160) At the very least though, the custom lasted for well over a thousand years, until well into the 20th Century. These pictures are all of women from the late 19th or early 20th Century

[[File:5_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Size comparison: regular size woman's shoe (from WWI era), woman's bound feet & a teacup. Photo by by otisarchives3.Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/22719239@N04/2283064557/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]

These pictures show only the result of footbinding, not the terrible and excruciatingly painful process by which these result were obtained.

=Origins=
Even though there are some disagreements about when exactly footbinding began, there is a general time frame for when it likely started. Footbinding possibly originated during the fifty years between the Tang and Song dynasties, roughly 907-959 A.D. During this time it wasfashionable for women to walk slowly and sway. Also,both men and women compressed their feet moderately. Between 750-1100 A.D. footbinding became a female custom and spread to all parts of society. The practice originated in the north, and followed the migration patterns and moved its way south. Footbindng did not become as prevalent in the South as it did in the North, primarily due to the fact that women were a larger part of the labor force in the South(Greenhalgh 8)

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.), footbinding received popular and official sanction. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 A.D.) the custom of footbinding was so prevalent that when the first Manchu Emperor in 1644 attempted to ban the custom, but failed. In the nineteenth century, footbinding reached its highest prevelance. This is an interesting fact considering the ruling dynasty did not practice footbinding. (Greenhalgh 8)

=== Story of First Footbinding ===

In the Southern Tang Dynasty (961-975 A.D.), the court of the Emperor Li Yu had a large number of courtesans and dancers. Among these dancers, Li Yu had a favorite. Her name was Yao-niang. Li Yu built her a six foot high golden lotus. This golden lotus was covered with jewels, pearls, and golden threads. Li Yu then ordered Yao-niang to bind her feet with strips of white silk, making them small, graceful, and in the shape of the crescent moon. Yao-niang was then supposed to dance on this golden lotus. (Greenhalgh 8-9)

After this, the term "golden lotus" became a euphemism for bound feet, because of the resemblance between a bound foot and a lotus. The bound foot became the aesthetic ideal and fashionable. (Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though it is not necessarily known who bound the first feet, The story of the first bound foot shows what the ideal was for the custom of footbinding.

=Who Had Their Feet Bound?=
Footbinding could be seen in girls and women throughout the different social classes, however it was seen less in lower social classes becuase of the need for women being able to work. Footbinding usually began around age five or six. However, in upper class footbinding sometimes started at age three, and in lower classes it did not happen until the age twelve or thirteen. This process was always done by the mother or grandmother. Mothers did this to their daughter in hopes of finding a husband for their daughters and to keep or raise the family's social standing.(Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though footbinding custom and was done in lower class families, it was not always economically possible to bind the feet of all the daughters. In the lower class, the daughters feet were only bound if there was hope for marrying them into higher status families. In this situation, girls feet were bound late compared to girls in higher-class families. The bindings on these girls were not bound nearly as tight which allowed the girls to do household chores, work in fields, or find indoor employment. (Greenhalgh, 8)

For the families that could not afford to bind their daughters feet, the feet were left normal. These girls then worked in the fields or in shops of carpenters or blacksmiths. (Greenhalgh, 8)

=How to Bind Feet=

[[File:footbinding_schema.JPG|600px|thumb|right|Comparison of a normal foot and a foot that has gone through the footbinding process. Image by Marco L.]]

When a young girl was about 6 years old her feet would be bound for the first time. First, her feet would usually be soaked in a mixture of liquids (the ingredients varied- anything from plain water to animal blood) believed to soften the bones for the work ahead. Then, her toenails were cut and her four smaller toes were folded under the main part of the foot and tightly wrapped. (Often the bones in these toes were broken at this time. If they were not broken now, they would be later.) Then the entire foot was tightly wrapped around both the foot and the ankle, to draw the ball of the foot as close as possible to the heel. As the wrappings dried, the foot would be bound even tighter pulling the ball of the foot even closer to the heel and deforming (sometimes even breaking) the arch of the foot. The young girl would be required to walk on her bound feet, breaking the smaller toes, if not already broken. Eventually, if the procedure did not cost her her life, her feet would heal in the new position. The pain would never entirely go away. Frequently her feet would became infected and sometimes some of the flesh would die and need to be removed. This was considered a good thing because it allowed the foot to be bound even more tightly. All of this so that a mother could give her daughter the smallest possible feet, ideally 3 inches long (Ebrey,160)

Here is an account of the footbinding process from someone who endured the process:

"Born into an old-fashioned family at P'ing-hsi,

I was inflicted with the pain of footbinding when I

was was seven years old . . . I wept and hid in a neighbor's

home, but mother found me, scolded me, and

dragged me home. She shut the bedroom door, boiled

water, and from a box withdrew binding, shoes, knife,

needle, and thread . . . She washed and placed alum

on my feet and cut the toenails. She then bent my

toes toward the plantar with a binding cloth ten

feet long and two inches wide, doing the right foot

first and then the left. She finished binding and

ordered me to walk, but when I did the pain proved

unbearable.

That night, mother wouldn't let me remove the

shoes. My feet felt on fire and I couldn't sleep;

mother struck me for crying . . . The feet were

washed and rebound after three or four days, with

alum added. After several months, all toes but the

big one were pressed against the inner surface . . .

Mother would remove the bindings and wipe the blood

and pus which dripped from my feet. She told me

that only with removal of the flesh could my feet

become slender. If I mistakenly punctured a sore,

the blood gushed like a stream.

Every two weeks, I changed to new shoes. Each

new pair was one- to two-tenths of an inch smaller

than the previous one . . . After changing more than

ten pairs of shoes, my feet were reduced to a little

over four inches . . . Four of the toes were curled

in like so many dead caterpillars; no outsider

would ever have believed that they belonged to a

human being. It took two years to achieve the

three-inch model . . ." (Greenhalgh, 9)

By reading an account of the process from someone who actually endured it, makes it a little easier to understand what women went through. About one out of ten girls died from the process of footbinding, or the effects it had after it was done. A higher percentage of the deaths from footbinding would have occured in the countryside. This was due to the fact that in the countryside there was not as much knowledge on how to fight infections.(Greenhalgh, 9-10)

=Care of Bound=
[[File:12_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Not just in China. This woman is from Toronto. Photo by Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library. Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/thomasfisherlibrary/6235264222/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]
[[File:footbinding_shoes.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Photo of the type of shoes women with bound feet wore. Photo by Queensland Museum]]
The pain from footbinding never fully went away. Only women who had mothers who were skilled at the process had the pain subside after a year or two. At this time, it became the woman's job to care for her bound feet. Caring for bound feet was always done in private, because the possibility of someone seeing the unbound foot was considered taboo.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Once a week, women would soak their bandaged feet in hot water. They would then remove the bandages, and any dead skin or calluses would be rubbed and cut off. Women also had to perfume their feet in order to hide the smell. The feet were then kneaded into the desired shape, dusted with alum, and rebound quickly in order to preserve the shape. (Greenhalgh, 10)

Embroidered shoes with one or two inch wooden heels were worn. The shoes were shaped in order to help women walk with their now mishaped feet. The heels helped balance and support the body. Women usually had more than one pair of shoes, if they could afford them, including a pair for special occasions. (Greenhalgh, 10)

The ankles of women with bound feet were affected the footbinding process. Ankles were swollen and deformed, and in order to hide this women wore leggings which were fastened above the calf and hung down far enough just to show the tiny foot in its embroidered shoes.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Walking on these poor feet, was an exercise in pain. After all, the women's toes were now tucked into the sole of her feet. To walk, she either had to walk on her toes, or, learn to walk on just her heels (It is not easy to do.) Walking only on your heals gave these women a certain characteristic walk. Women whose feet were not bound, wanted to be able to walk the same way. So, they created special shoes to help them.

=Role in Marriage=

One of the main roles footbinding played was increasing the marriagablilty of the daughters in a household. Marriage was a way to assure continuity of the patrilineal line. When a family had a daughter, their concern was to raise her as cheaply as possible. This was due to the fact that girls left the family and could not help the family economically. This meant the main task for the family was to ensure that their daughters would marry into a good family. In order to make a daughter marriageable they had to be brought up in strict accordance of correct female behavior. The correct way for women behave was outlined in the Three Obediences and the Four Virtues.

'''Three Obediences''':

''Before a woman is married she must obey her father''

''When married, she must live for her husband''

''And as a widow she must serve her sons''

The three obediences were in ''Precepts for Women'' in the 2nd Century A.D. by Nu Chieh.(Greenhalgh, 12)

'''Four Virtues''':

''Woman’s Behavior: chaste and yielding, calm and upright''

''Woman’s Speech: not talkative, yet agreeable''

''Woman’s Carriage and Appearance: restrained and exquisite''

''Woman’s Occupation: handiwork, embroidery.'' (Greenhalgh, 12)

Women had to follow the standard of how they were supposed to live because there was no socially acceptable alternative for getting married, other than becoming a concubine. The goal of parents was to rear daughter to make best marriage match possible. The best marriage was usually to someone of a higher social status. The advantage of marrying a daughter into a family of higher status was political. By marrying thier daughter to a higher social status,the family was either able to get someone from the family into a political office, or they would now have a member of the daughters family in a political office. By knowing someone in a political, members of the brides family would be able to get immunity from political exploitation. (Greenhalgh, 13)

There were also a few economic benefits of marrying a daughter to a family of higher status. The primary economic gaim was a gift of money the grooms family sent to the brides family. The brides famiily also could possibly get loans or have business deals with the grooms family. Even with the possible financial gains, the political gains were better for the family. (Greenhalgh, 13)

Along with the family benefits, there were benefits for the bride if she married a man in a higher social status. The higher she married, the less physical work she would have to do. (Greenhalgh, 13)

When a woman married, she moved into her husbands family "compound." There lived her and her husband, mother-in-law, father-in-law, and any brothers of her husband and their wives. In this living situation, the mother-in-law held all the domestic power. By a having their feet bound prevented women from becoming disruptive. Women were continuously under the watchful eye of the mother-in-law and were unable to wander and earn any money of their own. Women in this situation also had little say in the decisions that affected their lives because of the control her in-laws held. (Greenhalgh, 14)

At some point, the family compound would be split up into separate households. This was not a good thing for the mother-in-law because she lost the power she held over her daughter-in-laws. This change of living situations was beneficial to the daughter-in-law because she now had control over her own life. (Greenhalgh, 15)

Footbinding became a self-repetitive cycle. "The family system demanded footbound wives to do its domestic and reproductive tasks: and footbound wives, physically constrained from doing otherwise, reinforced the power structures which strengthened the system." (Greenhalgh, 15)

=End of Footbinding=

[[File:8_footbinding.jpg|200px|thumb|left|typical bound foot. The toes have been wrapped so completely under the foot that they are visible on the opposite side]]
[[File:11_footbinding.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Chinese woman with bound feet compared with another woman's unbound feet (she turned one foot so that the side view could be seen]]

Footbinding wasn't always legal in China. The Qing Dynasty outlawed footbinding, but the law was mostly ignored and women continued to bind their daughter's feet. The Qing Dynasty was not run by Han Chinese, and therefore they did not practice the footbinding custom.

Reform for footbinding did not come from within China, it came from the intrusion of Western imperialism in the 19th century. Western missionaries and urban,upperclass Chinse began to put together natural-foot societies. These societies sent out pamphlets with propaganda such as:

"The present is no time of peace. Foreign women have natural feet; they are daring, and can defend themselves; whilst Chinese women have bound feet, and are too weak even to bear the weight of their own clothes..." (Greenhalgh, 15)

During this time of reform, there also was an increase in industrialization. Industrialization created jobs for women outside of the home. With new work outside of the family compound, women with bound feet not as able to get out. This led to women with unbound feet able to get of the house. The custom of binding feet slowed modernization because it kept such a large number of possible workers at home. (Greenhalgh, 15)

The increase of Westerners also influenced the downfall of footbinding. Footbinding was ridiculed by Westerners, and in order to prevent national humiliation, the custom of footbinding needed to be given up. New leaders in 1912 after overthrowing Manchu dynasty passed number of strict anti-footbinding decrees. (Greenhalgh, 16)

'''1929 survey''':

2.3% girls born before 1900 had unbound feet

95.1% girls born after 1910 had unbound feet

This survey shows the dramatic decrease in custom of footbinding. Women who already had bound feet were unlikely to follow laws and unbind their feet. This was primarily because of the pain and slim chance foot would regain natural shape. (Greenhalgh, 16)

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

= Classroom Presentation =
[[Media:Footbinding.pptx]] by Mallory Wilsted

= Works Cited =
Ebrey, Patrica Buckley. "The Cambridge Illustrated History of China". New York, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 2d ed.

Greenhalgh, Susan. “Bound Feet, Hobbled Lives: Women in Old China.” ''Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies''. Vol. 2, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), pp. 7- 21

Footbinding

2013-04-17T08:32:58Z

Christopher W: /* Role in Marriage */

There is some disagreement about when footbinding began in China. It has been suggested that it began as early as the Shang Dynasty and as late as the Song Dynasty.(Ebrey, 160) At the very least though, the custom lasted for well over a thousand years, until well into the 20th Century. These pictures are all of women from the late 19th or early 20th Century

[[File:5_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Size comparison: regular size woman's shoe (from WWI era), woman's bound feet & a teacup. Photo by by otisarchives3.Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/22719239@N04/2283064557/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]

These pictures show only the result of footbinding, not the terrible and excruciatingly painful process by which these result were obtained.

=Origins=
Even though there are some disagreements about when exactly footbinding began, there is a general time frame for when it likely started. Footbinding possibly originated during the fifty years between the Tang and Song dynasties, roughly 907-959 A.D. During this time it wasfashionable for women to walk slowly and sway. Also,both men and women compressed their feet moderately. Between 750-1100 A.D. footbinding became a female custom and spread to all parts of society. The practice originated in the north, and followed the migration patterns and moved its way south. Footbindng did not become as prevalent in the South as it did in the North, primarily due to the fact that women were a larger part of the labor force in the South(Greenhalgh 8)

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.), footbinding received popular and official sanction. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 A.D.) the custom of footbinding was so prevalent that when the first Manchu Emperor in 1644 attempted to ban the custom, but failed. In the nineteenth century, footbinding reached its highest prevelance. This is an interesting fact considering the ruling dynasty did not practice footbinding. (Greenhalgh 8)

=== Story of First Footbinding ===

In the Southern Tang Dynasty (961-975 A.D.), the court of the Emperor Li Yu had a large number of courtesans and dancers. Among these dancers, Li Yu had a favorite. Her name was Yao-niang. Li Yu built her a six foot high golden lotus. This golden lotus was covered with jewels, pearls, and golden threads. Li Yu then ordered Yao-niang to bind her feet with strips of white silk, making them small, graceful, and in the shape of the crescent moon. Yao-niang was then supposed to dance on this golden lotus. (Greenhalgh 8-9)

After this, the term "golden lotus" became a euphemism for bound feet, because of the resemblance between a bound foot and a lotus. The bound foot became the aesthetic ideal and fashionable. (Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though it is not necessarily known who bound the first feet, The story of the first bound foot shows what the ideal was for the custom of footbinding.

=Who Had Their Feet Bound?=
Footbinding could be seen in girls and women throughout the different social classes, however it was seen less in lower social classes becuase of the need for women being able to work. Footbinding usually began around age five or six. However, in upper class footbinding sometimes started at age three, and in lower classes it did not happen until the age twelve or thirteen. This process was always done by the mother or grandmother. Mothers did this to their daughter in hopes of finding a husband for their daughters and to keep or raise the family's social standing.(Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though footbinding custom and was done in lower class families, it was not always economically possible to bind the feet of all the daughters. In the lower class, the daughters feet were only bound if there was hope for marrying them into higher status families. In this situation, girls feet were bound late compared to girls in higher-class families. The bindings on these girls were not bound nearly as tight which allowed the girls to do household chores, work in fields, or find indoor employment. (Greenhalgh, 8)

For the families that could not afford to bind their daughters feet, the feet were left normal. These girls then worked in the fields or in shops of carpenters or blacksmiths. (Greenhalgh, 8)

=How to Bind Feet=
[[File:6_Shanghai_1900_by_Okinawa_Soba.jpg|225px|thumb|left|Chinese woman from Shanghai 1900 shows her bound feet]]
[[File:7_shanghai.jpg|250px|thumb|right|top view of the feet of the woman from Shanghai unwrapped and shown next to the foot of a typical woman with unbound feet.]]
[[File:9_footbinding.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Now for a look at the bottom of her feet]]
[[File:10_footbinding.jpg|250px|thumb|right|close up of typical bound feet.]]
[[File:footbinding_schema.JPG|600px|thumb|right|Comparison of a normal foot and a foot that has gone through the footbinding process. Image by Marco L.]]

When a young girl was about 6 years old her feet would be bound for the first time. First, her feet would usually be soaked in a mixture of liquids (the ingredients varied- anything from plain water to animal blood) believed to soften the bones for the work ahead. Then, her toenails were cut and her four smaller toes were folded under the main part of the foot and tightly wrapped. (Often the bones in these toes were broken at this time. If they were not broken now, they would be later.) Then the entire foot was tightly wrapped around both the foot and the ankle, to draw the ball of the foot as close as possible to the heel. As the wrappings dried, the foot would be bound even tighter pulling the ball of the foot even closer to the heel and deforming (sometimes even breaking) the arch of the foot. The young girl would be required to walk on her bound feet, breaking the smaller toes, if not already broken. Eventually, if the procedure did not cost her her life, her feet would heal in the new position. The pain would never entirely go away. Frequently her feet would became infected and sometimes some of the flesh would die and need to be removed. This was considered a good thing because it allowed the foot to be bound even more tightly. All of this so that a mother could give her daughter the smallest possible feet, ideally 3 inches long (Ebrey,160)

Here is an account of the footbinding process from someone who endured the process:

"Born into an old-fashioned family at P'ing-hsi,

I was inflicted with the pain of footbinding when I

was was seven years old . . . I wept and hid in a neighbor's

home, but mother found me, scolded me, and

dragged me home. She shut the bedroom door, boiled

water, and from a box withdrew binding, shoes, knife,

needle, and thread . . . She washed and placed alum

on my feet and cut the toenails. She then bent my

toes toward the plantar with a binding cloth ten

feet long and two inches wide, doing the right foot

first and then the left. She finished binding and

ordered me to walk, but when I did the pain proved

unbearable.

That night, mother wouldn't let me remove the

shoes. My feet felt on fire and I couldn't sleep;

mother struck me for crying . . . The feet were

washed and rebound after three or four days, with

alum added. After several months, all toes but the

big one were pressed against the inner surface . . .

Mother would remove the bindings and wipe the blood

and pus which dripped from my feet. She told me

that only with removal of the flesh could my feet

become slender. If I mistakenly punctured a sore,

the blood gushed like a stream.

Every two weeks, I changed to new shoes. Each

new pair was one- to two-tenths of an inch smaller

than the previous one . . . After changing more than

ten pairs of shoes, my feet were reduced to a little

over four inches . . . Four of the toes were curled

in like so many dead caterpillars; no outsider

would ever have believed that they belonged to a

human being. It took two years to achieve the

three-inch model . . ." (Greenhalgh, 9)

By reading an account of the process from someone who actually endured it, makes it a little easier to understand what women went through. About one out of ten girls died from the process of footbinding, or the effects it had after it was done. A higher percentage of the deaths from footbinding would have occured in the countryside. This was due to the fact that in the countryside there was not as much knowledge on how to fight infections.(Greenhalgh, 9-10)

=Care of Bound=
[[File:12_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Not just in China. This woman is from Toronto. Photo by Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library. Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/thomasfisherlibrary/6235264222/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]
[[File:footbinding_shoes.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Photo of the type of shoes women with bound feet wore. Photo by Queensland Museum]]
The pain from footbinding never fully went away. Only women who had mothers who were skilled at the process had the pain subside after a year or two. At this time, it became the woman's job to care for her bound feet. Caring for bound feet was always done in private, because the possibility of someone seeing the unbound foot was considered taboo.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Once a week, women would soak their bandaged feet in hot water. They would then remove the bandages, and any dead skin or calluses would be rubbed and cut off. Women also had to perfume their feet in order to hide the smell. The feet were then kneaded into the desired shape, dusted with alum, and rebound quickly in order to preserve the shape. (Greenhalgh, 10)

Embroidered shoes with one or two inch wooden heels were worn. The shoes were shaped in order to help women walk with their now mishaped feet. The heels helped balance and support the body. Women usually had more than one pair of shoes, if they could afford them, including a pair for special occasions. (Greenhalgh, 10)

The ankles of women with bound feet were affected the footbinding process. Ankles were swollen and deformed, and in order to hide this women wore leggings which were fastened above the calf and hung down far enough just to show the tiny foot in its embroidered shoes.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Walking on these poor feet, was an exercise in pain. After all, the women's toes were now tucked into the sole of her feet. To walk, she either had to walk on her toes, or, learn to walk on just her heels (It is not easy to do.) Walking only on your heals gave these women a certain characteristic walk. Women whose feet were not bound, wanted to be able to walk the same way. So, they created special shoes to help them.

=Role in Marriage=

One of the main roles footbinding played was increasing the marriagablilty of the daughters in a household. Marriage was a way to assure continuity of the patrilineal line. When a family had a daughter, their concern was to raise her as cheaply as possible. This was due to the fact that girls left the family and could not help the family economically. This meant the main task for the family was to ensure that their daughters would marry into a good family. In order to make a daughter marriageable they had to be brought up in strict accordance of correct female behavior. The correct way for women behave was outlined in the Three Obediences and the Four Virtues.

'''Three Obediences''':

''Before a woman is married she must obey her father''

''When married, she must live for her husband''

''And as a widow she must serve her sons''

The three obediences were in ''Precepts for Women'' in the 2nd Century A.D. by Nu Chieh.(Greenhalgh, 12)

'''Four Virtues''':

''Woman’s Behavior: chaste and yielding, calm and upright''

''Woman’s Speech: not talkative, yet agreeable''

''Woman’s Carriage and Appearance: restrained and exquisite''

''Woman’s Occupation: handiwork, embroidery.'' (Greenhalgh, 12)

Women had to follow the standard of how they were supposed to live because there was no socially acceptable alternative for getting married, other than becoming a concubine. The goal of parents was to rear daughter to make best marriage match possible. The best marriage was usually to someone of a higher social status. The advantage of marrying a daughter into a family of higher status was political. By marrying thier daughter to a higher social status,the family was either able to get someone from the family into a political office, or they would now have a member of the daughters family in a political office. By knowing someone in a political, members of the brides family would be able to get immunity from political exploitation. (Greenhalgh, 13)

There were also a few economic benefits of marrying a daughter to a family of higher status. The primary economic gaim was a gift of money the grooms family sent to the brides family. The brides famiily also could possibly get loans or have business deals with the grooms family. Even with the possible financial gains, the political gains were better for the family. (Greenhalgh, 13)

Along with the family benefits, there were benefits for the bride if she married a man in a higher social status. The higher she married, the less physical work she would have to do. (Greenhalgh, 13)

When a woman married, she moved into her husbands family "compound." There lived her and her husband, mother-in-law, father-in-law, and any brothers of her husband and their wives. In this living situation, the mother-in-law held all the domestic power. By a having their feet bound prevented women from becoming disruptive. Women were continuously under the watchful eye of the mother-in-law and were unable to wander and earn any money of their own. Women in this situation also had little say in the decisions that affected their lives because of the control her in-laws held. (Greenhalgh, 14)

At some point, the family compound would be split up into separate households. This was not a good thing for the mother-in-law because she lost the power she held over her daughter-in-laws. This change of living situations was beneficial to the daughter-in-law because she now had control over her own life. (Greenhalgh, 15)

Footbinding became a self-repetitive cycle. "The family system demanded footbound wives to do its domestic and reproductive tasks: and footbound wives, physically constrained from doing otherwise, reinforced the power structures which strengthened the system." (Greenhalgh, 15)

=End of Footbinding=

[[File:8_footbinding.jpg|200px|thumb|left|typical bound foot. The toes have been wrapped so completely under the foot that they are visible on the opposite side]]
[[File:11_footbinding.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Chinese woman with bound feet compared with another woman's unbound feet (she turned one foot so that the side view could be seen]]

Footbinding wasn't always legal in China. The Qing Dynasty outlawed footbinding, but the law was mostly ignored and women continued to bind their daughter's feet. The Qing Dynasty was not run by Han Chinese, and therefore they did not practice the footbinding custom.

Reform for footbinding did not come from within China, it came from the intrusion of Western imperialism in the 19th century. Western missionaries and urban,upperclass Chinse began to put together natural-foot societies. These societies sent out pamphlets with propaganda such as:

"The present is no time of peace. Foreign women have natural feet; they are daring, and can defend themselves; whilst Chinese women have bound feet, and are too weak even to bear the weight of their own clothes..." (Greenhalgh, 15)

During this time of reform, there also was an increase in industrialization. Industrialization created jobs for women outside of the home. With new work outside of the family compound, women with bound feet not as able to get out. This led to women with unbound feet able to get of the house. The custom of binding feet slowed modernization because it kept such a large number of possible workers at home. (Greenhalgh, 15)

The increase of Westerners also influenced the downfall of footbinding. Footbinding was ridiculed by Westerners, and in order to prevent national humiliation, the custom of footbinding needed to be given up. New leaders in 1912 after overthrowing Manchu dynasty passed number of strict anti-footbinding decrees. (Greenhalgh, 16)

'''1929 survey''':

2.3% girls born before 1900 had unbound feet

95.1% girls born after 1910 had unbound feet

This survey shows the dramatic decrease in custom of footbinding. Women who already had bound feet were unlikely to follow laws and unbind their feet. This was primarily because of the pain and slim chance foot would regain natural shape. (Greenhalgh, 16)

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

= Classroom Presentation =
[[Media:Footbinding.pptx]] by Mallory Wilsted

= Works Cited =
Ebrey, Patrica Buckley. "The Cambridge Illustrated History of China". New York, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 2d ed.

Greenhalgh, Susan. “Bound Feet, Hobbled Lives: Women in Old China.” ''Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies''. Vol. 2, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), pp. 7- 21

Footbinding

2013-04-17T08:32:39Z

Christopher W: /* Care of Bound */

There is some disagreement about when footbinding began in China. It has been suggested that it began as early as the Shang Dynasty and as late as the Song Dynasty.(Ebrey, 160) At the very least though, the custom lasted for well over a thousand years, until well into the 20th Century. These pictures are all of women from the late 19th or early 20th Century

[[File:5_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Size comparison: regular size woman's shoe (from WWI era), woman's bound feet & a teacup. Photo by by otisarchives3.Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/22719239@N04/2283064557/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]

These pictures show only the result of footbinding, not the terrible and excruciatingly painful process by which these result were obtained.

=Origins=
Even though there are some disagreements about when exactly footbinding began, there is a general time frame for when it likely started. Footbinding possibly originated during the fifty years between the Tang and Song dynasties, roughly 907-959 A.D. During this time it wasfashionable for women to walk slowly and sway. Also,both men and women compressed their feet moderately. Between 750-1100 A.D. footbinding became a female custom and spread to all parts of society. The practice originated in the north, and followed the migration patterns and moved its way south. Footbindng did not become as prevalent in the South as it did in the North, primarily due to the fact that women were a larger part of the labor force in the South(Greenhalgh 8)

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.), footbinding received popular and official sanction. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 A.D.) the custom of footbinding was so prevalent that when the first Manchu Emperor in 1644 attempted to ban the custom, but failed. In the nineteenth century, footbinding reached its highest prevelance. This is an interesting fact considering the ruling dynasty did not practice footbinding. (Greenhalgh 8)

=== Story of First Footbinding ===

In the Southern Tang Dynasty (961-975 A.D.), the court of the Emperor Li Yu had a large number of courtesans and dancers. Among these dancers, Li Yu had a favorite. Her name was Yao-niang. Li Yu built her a six foot high golden lotus. This golden lotus was covered with jewels, pearls, and golden threads. Li Yu then ordered Yao-niang to bind her feet with strips of white silk, making them small, graceful, and in the shape of the crescent moon. Yao-niang was then supposed to dance on this golden lotus. (Greenhalgh 8-9)

After this, the term "golden lotus" became a euphemism for bound feet, because of the resemblance between a bound foot and a lotus. The bound foot became the aesthetic ideal and fashionable. (Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though it is not necessarily known who bound the first feet, The story of the first bound foot shows what the ideal was for the custom of footbinding.

=Who Had Their Feet Bound?=
Footbinding could be seen in girls and women throughout the different social classes, however it was seen less in lower social classes becuase of the need for women being able to work. Footbinding usually began around age five or six. However, in upper class footbinding sometimes started at age three, and in lower classes it did not happen until the age twelve or thirteen. This process was always done by the mother or grandmother. Mothers did this to their daughter in hopes of finding a husband for their daughters and to keep or raise the family's social standing.(Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though footbinding custom and was done in lower class families, it was not always economically possible to bind the feet of all the daughters. In the lower class, the daughters feet were only bound if there was hope for marrying them into higher status families. In this situation, girls feet were bound late compared to girls in higher-class families. The bindings on these girls were not bound nearly as tight which allowed the girls to do household chores, work in fields, or find indoor employment. (Greenhalgh, 8)

For the families that could not afford to bind their daughters feet, the feet were left normal. These girls then worked in the fields or in shops of carpenters or blacksmiths. (Greenhalgh, 8)

=How to Bind Feet=
[[File:6_Shanghai_1900_by_Okinawa_Soba.jpg|225px|thumb|left|Chinese woman from Shanghai 1900 shows her bound feet]]
[[File:7_shanghai.jpg|250px|thumb|right|top view of the feet of the woman from Shanghai unwrapped and shown next to the foot of a typical woman with unbound feet.]]
[[File:9_footbinding.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Now for a look at the bottom of her feet]]
[[File:10_footbinding.jpg|250px|thumb|right|close up of typical bound feet.]]
[[File:footbinding_schema.JPG|600px|thumb|right|Comparison of a normal foot and a foot that has gone through the footbinding process. Image by Marco L.]]

When a young girl was about 6 years old her feet would be bound for the first time. First, her feet would usually be soaked in a mixture of liquids (the ingredients varied- anything from plain water to animal blood) believed to soften the bones for the work ahead. Then, her toenails were cut and her four smaller toes were folded under the main part of the foot and tightly wrapped. (Often the bones in these toes were broken at this time. If they were not broken now, they would be later.) Then the entire foot was tightly wrapped around both the foot and the ankle, to draw the ball of the foot as close as possible to the heel. As the wrappings dried, the foot would be bound even tighter pulling the ball of the foot even closer to the heel and deforming (sometimes even breaking) the arch of the foot. The young girl would be required to walk on her bound feet, breaking the smaller toes, if not already broken. Eventually, if the procedure did not cost her her life, her feet would heal in the new position. The pain would never entirely go away. Frequently her feet would became infected and sometimes some of the flesh would die and need to be removed. This was considered a good thing because it allowed the foot to be bound even more tightly. All of this so that a mother could give her daughter the smallest possible feet, ideally 3 inches long (Ebrey,160)

Here is an account of the footbinding process from someone who endured the process:

"Born into an old-fashioned family at P'ing-hsi,

I was inflicted with the pain of footbinding when I

was was seven years old . . . I wept and hid in a neighbor's

home, but mother found me, scolded me, and

dragged me home. She shut the bedroom door, boiled

water, and from a box withdrew binding, shoes, knife,

needle, and thread . . . She washed and placed alum

on my feet and cut the toenails. She then bent my

toes toward the plantar with a binding cloth ten

feet long and two inches wide, doing the right foot

first and then the left. She finished binding and

ordered me to walk, but when I did the pain proved

unbearable.

That night, mother wouldn't let me remove the

shoes. My feet felt on fire and I couldn't sleep;

mother struck me for crying . . . The feet were

washed and rebound after three or four days, with

alum added. After several months, all toes but the

big one were pressed against the inner surface . . .

Mother would remove the bindings and wipe the blood

and pus which dripped from my feet. She told me

that only with removal of the flesh could my feet

become slender. If I mistakenly punctured a sore,

the blood gushed like a stream.

Every two weeks, I changed to new shoes. Each

new pair was one- to two-tenths of an inch smaller

than the previous one . . . After changing more than

ten pairs of shoes, my feet were reduced to a little

over four inches . . . Four of the toes were curled

in like so many dead caterpillars; no outsider

would ever have believed that they belonged to a

human being. It took two years to achieve the

three-inch model . . ." (Greenhalgh, 9)

By reading an account of the process from someone who actually endured it, makes it a little easier to understand what women went through. About one out of ten girls died from the process of footbinding, or the effects it had after it was done. A higher percentage of the deaths from footbinding would have occured in the countryside. This was due to the fact that in the countryside there was not as much knowledge on how to fight infections.(Greenhalgh, 9-10)

=Care of Bound=
[[File:12_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Not just in China. This woman is from Toronto. Photo by Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library. Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/thomasfisherlibrary/6235264222/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]
[[File:footbinding_shoes.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Photo of the type of shoes women with bound feet wore. Photo by Queensland Museum]]
The pain from footbinding never fully went away. Only women who had mothers who were skilled at the process had the pain subside after a year or two. At this time, it became the woman's job to care for her bound feet. Caring for bound feet was always done in private, because the possibility of someone seeing the unbound foot was considered taboo.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Once a week, women would soak their bandaged feet in hot water. They would then remove the bandages, and any dead skin or calluses would be rubbed and cut off. Women also had to perfume their feet in order to hide the smell. The feet were then kneaded into the desired shape, dusted with alum, and rebound quickly in order to preserve the shape. (Greenhalgh, 10)

Embroidered shoes with one or two inch wooden heels were worn. The shoes were shaped in order to help women walk with their now mishaped feet. The heels helped balance and support the body. Women usually had more than one pair of shoes, if they could afford them, including a pair for special occasions. (Greenhalgh, 10)

The ankles of women with bound feet were affected the footbinding process. Ankles were swollen and deformed, and in order to hide this women wore leggings which were fastened above the calf and hung down far enough just to show the tiny foot in its embroidered shoes.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Walking on these poor feet, was an exercise in pain. After all, the women's toes were now tucked into the sole of her feet. To walk, she either had to walk on her toes, or, learn to walk on just her heels (It is not easy to do.) Walking only on your heals gave these women a certain characteristic walk. Women whose feet were not bound, wanted to be able to walk the same way. So, they created special shoes to help them.

=Role in Marriage=
[[File:4_footbinding.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Mother & daughter- compare the size of their feet]]
One of the main roles footbinding played was increasing the marriagablilty of the daughters in a household. Marriage was a way to assure continuity of the patrilineal line. When a family had a daughter, their concern was to raise her as cheaply as possible. This was due to the fact that girls left the family and could not help the family economically. This meant the main task for the family was to ensure that their daughters would marry into a good family. In order to make a daughter marriageable they had to be brought up in strict accordance of correct female behavior. The correct way for women behave was outlined in the Three Obediences and the Four Virtues.

'''Three Obediences''':

''Before a woman is married she must obey her father''

''When married, she must live for her husband''

''And as a widow she must serve her sons''

The three obediences were in ''Precepts for Women'' in the 2nd Century A.D. by Nu Chieh.(Greenhalgh, 12)

'''Four Virtues''':

''Woman’s Behavior: chaste and yielding, calm and upright''

''Woman’s Speech: not talkative, yet agreeable''

''Woman’s Carriage and Appearance: restrained and exquisite''

''Woman’s Occupation: handiwork, embroidery.'' (Greenhalgh, 12)

Women had to follow the standard of how they were supposed to live because there was no socially acceptable alternative for getting married, other than becoming a concubine. The goal of parents was to rear daughter to make best marriage match possible. The best marriage was usually to someone of a higher social status. The advantage of marrying a daughter into a family of higher status was political. By marrying thier daughter to a higher social status,the family was either able to get someone from the family into a political office, or they would now have a member of the daughters family in a political office. By knowing someone in a political, members of the brides family would be able to get immunity from political exploitation. (Greenhalgh, 13)

There were also a few economic benefits of marrying a daughter to a family of higher status. The primary economic gaim was a gift of money the grooms family sent to the brides family. The brides famiily also could possibly get loans or have business deals with the grooms family. Even with the possible financial gains, the political gains were better for the family. (Greenhalgh, 13)

Along with the family benefits, there were benefits for the bride if she married a man in a higher social status. The higher she married, the less physical work she would have to do. (Greenhalgh, 13)

When a woman married, she moved into her husbands family "compound." There lived her and her husband, mother-in-law, father-in-law, and any brothers of her husband and their wives. In this living situation, the mother-in-law held all the domestic power. By a having their feet bound prevented women from becoming disruptive. Women were continuously under the watchful eye of the mother-in-law and were unable to wander and earn any money of their own. Women in this situation also had little say in the decisions that affected their lives because of the control her in-laws held. (Greenhalgh, 14)

At some point, the family compound would be split up into separate households. This was not a good thing for the mother-in-law because she lost the power she held over her daughter-in-laws. This change of living situations was beneficial to the daughter-in-law because she now had control over her own life. (Greenhalgh, 15)

Footbinding became a self-repetitive cycle. "The family system demanded footbound wives to do its domestic and reproductive tasks: and footbound wives, physically constrained from doing otherwise, reinforced the power structures which strengthened the system." (Greenhalgh, 15)

=End of Footbinding=

[[File:8_footbinding.jpg|200px|thumb|left|typical bound foot. The toes have been wrapped so completely under the foot that they are visible on the opposite side]]
[[File:11_footbinding.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Chinese woman with bound feet compared with another woman's unbound feet (she turned one foot so that the side view could be seen]]

Footbinding wasn't always legal in China. The Qing Dynasty outlawed footbinding, but the law was mostly ignored and women continued to bind their daughter's feet. The Qing Dynasty was not run by Han Chinese, and therefore they did not practice the footbinding custom.

Reform for footbinding did not come from within China, it came from the intrusion of Western imperialism in the 19th century. Western missionaries and urban,upperclass Chinse began to put together natural-foot societies. These societies sent out pamphlets with propaganda such as:

"The present is no time of peace. Foreign women have natural feet; they are daring, and can defend themselves; whilst Chinese women have bound feet, and are too weak even to bear the weight of their own clothes..." (Greenhalgh, 15)

During this time of reform, there also was an increase in industrialization. Industrialization created jobs for women outside of the home. With new work outside of the family compound, women with bound feet not as able to get out. This led to women with unbound feet able to get of the house. The custom of binding feet slowed modernization because it kept such a large number of possible workers at home. (Greenhalgh, 15)

The increase of Westerners also influenced the downfall of footbinding. Footbinding was ridiculed by Westerners, and in order to prevent national humiliation, the custom of footbinding needed to be given up. New leaders in 1912 after overthrowing Manchu dynasty passed number of strict anti-footbinding decrees. (Greenhalgh, 16)

'''1929 survey''':

2.3% girls born before 1900 had unbound feet

95.1% girls born after 1910 had unbound feet

This survey shows the dramatic decrease in custom of footbinding. Women who already had bound feet were unlikely to follow laws and unbind their feet. This was primarily because of the pain and slim chance foot would regain natural shape. (Greenhalgh, 16)

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

= Classroom Presentation =
[[Media:Footbinding.pptx]] by Mallory Wilsted

= Works Cited =
Ebrey, Patrica Buckley. "The Cambridge Illustrated History of China". New York, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 2d ed.

Greenhalgh, Susan. “Bound Feet, Hobbled Lives: Women in Old China.” ''Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies''. Vol. 2, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), pp. 7- 21

Footbinding

2013-04-17T08:30:45Z

Christopher W:

There is some disagreement about when footbinding began in China. It has been suggested that it began as early as the Shang Dynasty and as late as the Song Dynasty.(Ebrey, 160) At the very least though, the custom lasted for well over a thousand years, until well into the 20th Century. These pictures are all of women from the late 19th or early 20th Century

[[File:5_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Size comparison: regular size woman's shoe (from WWI era), woman's bound feet & a teacup. Photo by by otisarchives3.Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/22719239@N04/2283064557/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]

These pictures show only the result of footbinding, not the terrible and excruciatingly painful process by which these result were obtained.

=Origins=
Even though there are some disagreements about when exactly footbinding began, there is a general time frame for when it likely started. Footbinding possibly originated during the fifty years between the Tang and Song dynasties, roughly 907-959 A.D. During this time it wasfashionable for women to walk slowly and sway. Also,both men and women compressed their feet moderately. Between 750-1100 A.D. footbinding became a female custom and spread to all parts of society. The practice originated in the north, and followed the migration patterns and moved its way south. Footbindng did not become as prevalent in the South as it did in the North, primarily due to the fact that women were a larger part of the labor force in the South(Greenhalgh 8)

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.), footbinding received popular and official sanction. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 A.D.) the custom of footbinding was so prevalent that when the first Manchu Emperor in 1644 attempted to ban the custom, but failed. In the nineteenth century, footbinding reached its highest prevelance. This is an interesting fact considering the ruling dynasty did not practice footbinding. (Greenhalgh 8)

=== Story of First Footbinding ===

In the Southern Tang Dynasty (961-975 A.D.), the court of the Emperor Li Yu had a large number of courtesans and dancers. Among these dancers, Li Yu had a favorite. Her name was Yao-niang. Li Yu built her a six foot high golden lotus. This golden lotus was covered with jewels, pearls, and golden threads. Li Yu then ordered Yao-niang to bind her feet with strips of white silk, making them small, graceful, and in the shape of the crescent moon. Yao-niang was then supposed to dance on this golden lotus. (Greenhalgh 8-9)

After this, the term "golden lotus" became a euphemism for bound feet, because of the resemblance between a bound foot and a lotus. The bound foot became the aesthetic ideal and fashionable. (Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though it is not necessarily known who bound the first feet, The story of the first bound foot shows what the ideal was for the custom of footbinding.

=Who Had Their Feet Bound?=
Footbinding could be seen in girls and women throughout the different social classes, however it was seen less in lower social classes becuase of the need for women being able to work. Footbinding usually began around age five or six. However, in upper class footbinding sometimes started at age three, and in lower classes it did not happen until the age twelve or thirteen. This process was always done by the mother or grandmother. Mothers did this to their daughter in hopes of finding a husband for their daughters and to keep or raise the family's social standing.(Greenhalgh, 9)

Even though footbinding custom and was done in lower class families, it was not always economically possible to bind the feet of all the daughters. In the lower class, the daughters feet were only bound if there was hope for marrying them into higher status families. In this situation, girls feet were bound late compared to girls in higher-class families. The bindings on these girls were not bound nearly as tight which allowed the girls to do household chores, work in fields, or find indoor employment. (Greenhalgh, 8)

For the families that could not afford to bind their daughters feet, the feet were left normal. These girls then worked in the fields or in shops of carpenters or blacksmiths. (Greenhalgh, 8)

=How to Bind Feet=
[[File:6_Shanghai_1900_by_Okinawa_Soba.jpg|225px|thumb|left|Chinese woman from Shanghai 1900 shows her bound feet]]
[[File:7_shanghai.jpg|250px|thumb|right|top view of the feet of the woman from Shanghai unwrapped and shown next to the foot of a typical woman with unbound feet.]]
[[File:9_footbinding.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Now for a look at the bottom of her feet]]
[[File:10_footbinding.jpg|250px|thumb|right|close up of typical bound feet.]]
[[File:footbinding_schema.JPG|600px|thumb|right|Comparison of a normal foot and a foot that has gone through the footbinding process. Image by Marco L.]]

When a young girl was about 6 years old her feet would be bound for the first time. First, her feet would usually be soaked in a mixture of liquids (the ingredients varied- anything from plain water to animal blood) believed to soften the bones for the work ahead. Then, her toenails were cut and her four smaller toes were folded under the main part of the foot and tightly wrapped. (Often the bones in these toes were broken at this time. If they were not broken now, they would be later.) Then the entire foot was tightly wrapped around both the foot and the ankle, to draw the ball of the foot as close as possible to the heel. As the wrappings dried, the foot would be bound even tighter pulling the ball of the foot even closer to the heel and deforming (sometimes even breaking) the arch of the foot. The young girl would be required to walk on her bound feet, breaking the smaller toes, if not already broken. Eventually, if the procedure did not cost her her life, her feet would heal in the new position. The pain would never entirely go away. Frequently her feet would became infected and sometimes some of the flesh would die and need to be removed. This was considered a good thing because it allowed the foot to be bound even more tightly. All of this so that a mother could give her daughter the smallest possible feet, ideally 3 inches long (Ebrey,160)

Here is an account of the footbinding process from someone who endured the process:

"Born into an old-fashioned family at P'ing-hsi,

I was inflicted with the pain of footbinding when I

was was seven years old . . . I wept and hid in a neighbor's

home, but mother found me, scolded me, and

dragged me home. She shut the bedroom door, boiled

water, and from a box withdrew binding, shoes, knife,

needle, and thread . . . She washed and placed alum

on my feet and cut the toenails. She then bent my

toes toward the plantar with a binding cloth ten

feet long and two inches wide, doing the right foot

first and then the left. She finished binding and

ordered me to walk, but when I did the pain proved

unbearable.

That night, mother wouldn't let me remove the

shoes. My feet felt on fire and I couldn't sleep;

mother struck me for crying . . . The feet were

washed and rebound after three or four days, with

alum added. After several months, all toes but the

big one were pressed against the inner surface . . .

Mother would remove the bindings and wipe the blood

and pus which dripped from my feet. She told me

that only with removal of the flesh could my feet

become slender. If I mistakenly punctured a sore,

the blood gushed like a stream.

Every two weeks, I changed to new shoes. Each

new pair was one- to two-tenths of an inch smaller

than the previous one . . . After changing more than

ten pairs of shoes, my feet were reduced to a little

over four inches . . . Four of the toes were curled

in like so many dead caterpillars; no outsider

would ever have believed that they belonged to a

human being. It took two years to achieve the

three-inch model . . ." (Greenhalgh, 9)

By reading an account of the process from someone who actually endured it, makes it a little easier to understand what women went through. About one out of ten girls died from the process of footbinding, or the effects it had after it was done. A higher percentage of the deaths from footbinding would have occured in the countryside. This was due to the fact that in the countryside there was not as much knowledge on how to fight infections.(Greenhalgh, 9-10)

=Care of Bound=
[[File:12_footbinding.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Not just in China. This woman is from Toronto. Click [http://www.flickr.com/photos/thomasfisherlibrary/6235264222/sizes/l/in/photostream/ here] for original source.]]
[[File:footbinding_shoes.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Photo of the type of shoes women with bound feet wore. Photo by Queensland Museum]]
[[File:14_shoes_for_manchu_unbnd_ft_women-_walk_like_bound.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Example of shoes, for women whose feet were not bound, designed to help them walk like women with bound feet.]]
The pain from footbinding never fully went away. Only women who had mothers who were skilled at the process had the pain subside after a year or two. At this time, it became the woman's job to care for her bound feet. Caring for bound feet was always done in private, because the possibility of someone seeing the unbound foot was considered taboo.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Once a week, women would soak their bandaged feet in hot water. They would then remove the bandages, and any dead skin or calluses would be rubbed and cut off. Women also had to perfume their feet in order to hide the smell. The feet were then kneaded into the desired shape, dusted with alum, and rebound quickly in order to preserve the shape. (Greenhalgh, 10)

Embroidered shoes with one or two inch wooden heels were worn. The shoes were shaped in order to help women walk with their now mishaped feet. The heels helped balance and support the body. Women usually had more than one pair of shoes, if they could afford them, including a pair for special occasions. (Greenhalgh, 10)

The ankles of women with bound feet were affected the footbinding process. Ankles were swollen and deformed, and in order to hide this women wore leggings which were fastened above the calf and hung down far enough just to show the tiny foot in its embroidered shoes.(Greenhalgh, 10)

Walking on these poor feet, was an exercise in pain. After all, the women's toes were now tucked into the sole of her feet. To walk, she either had to walk on her toes, or, learn to walk on just her heels (It is not easy to do.) Walking only on your heals gave these women a certain characteristic walk. Women whose feet were not bound, wanted to be able to walk the same way. So, they created special shoes to help them.

=Role in Marriage=
[[File:4_footbinding.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Mother & daughter- compare the size of their feet]]
One of the main roles footbinding played was increasing the marriagablilty of the daughters in a household. Marriage was a way to assure continuity of the patrilineal line. When a family had a daughter, their concern was to raise her as cheaply as possible. This was due to the fact that girls left the family and could not help the family economically. This meant the main task for the family was to ensure that their daughters would marry into a good family. In order to make a daughter marriageable they had to be brought up in strict accordance of correct female behavior. The correct way for women behave was outlined in the Three Obediences and the Four Virtues.

'''Three Obediences''':

''Before a woman is married she must obey her father''

''When married, she must live for her husband''

''And as a widow she must serve her sons''

The three obediences were in ''Precepts for Women'' in the 2nd Century A.D. by Nu Chieh.(Greenhalgh, 12)

'''Four Virtues''':

''Woman’s Behavior: chaste and yielding, calm and upright''

''Woman’s Speech: not talkative, yet agreeable''

''Woman’s Carriage and Appearance: restrained and exquisite''

''Woman’s Occupation: handiwork, embroidery.'' (Greenhalgh, 12)

Women had to follow the standard of how they were supposed to live because there was no socially acceptable alternative for getting married, other than becoming a concubine. The goal of parents was to rear daughter to make best marriage match possible. The best marriage was usually to someone of a higher social status. The advantage of marrying a daughter into a family of higher status was political. By marrying thier daughter to a higher social status,the family was either able to get someone from the family into a political office, or they would now have a member of the daughters family in a political office. By knowing someone in a political, members of the brides family would be able to get immunity from political exploitation. (Greenhalgh, 13)

There were also a few economic benefits of marrying a daughter to a family of higher status. The primary economic gaim was a gift of money the grooms family sent to the brides family. The brides famiily also could possibly get loans or have business deals with the grooms family. Even with the possible financial gains, the political gains were better for the family. (Greenhalgh, 13)

Along with the family benefits, there were benefits for the bride if she married a man in a higher social status. The higher she married, the less physical work she would have to do. (Greenhalgh, 13)

When a woman married, she moved into her husbands family "compound." There lived her and her husband, mother-in-law, father-in-law, and any brothers of her husband and their wives. In this living situation, the mother-in-law held all the domestic power. By a having their feet bound prevented women from becoming disruptive. Women were continuously under the watchful eye of the mother-in-law and were unable to wander and earn any money of their own. Women in this situation also had little say in the decisions that affected their lives because of the control her in-laws held. (Greenhalgh, 14)

At some point, the family compound would be split up into separate households. This was not a good thing for the mother-in-law because she lost the power she held over her daughter-in-laws. This change of living situations was beneficial to the daughter-in-law because she now had control over her own life. (Greenhalgh, 15)

Footbinding became a self-repetitive cycle. "The family system demanded footbound wives to do its domestic and reproductive tasks: and footbound wives, physically constrained from doing otherwise, reinforced the power structures which strengthened the system." (Greenhalgh, 15)

=End of Footbinding=

[[File:8_footbinding.jpg|200px|thumb|left|typical bound foot. The toes have been wrapped so completely under the foot that they are visible on the opposite side]]
[[File:11_footbinding.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Chinese woman with bound feet compared with another woman's unbound feet (she turned one foot so that the side view could be seen]]

Footbinding wasn't always legal in China. The Qing Dynasty outlawed footbinding, but the law was mostly ignored and women continued to bind their daughter's feet. The Qing Dynasty was not run by Han Chinese, and therefore they did not practice the footbinding custom.

Reform for footbinding did not come from within China, it came from the intrusion of Western imperialism in the 19th century. Western missionaries and urban,upperclass Chinse began to put together natural-foot societies. These societies sent out pamphlets with propaganda such as:

"The present is no time of peace. Foreign women have natural feet; they are daring, and can defend themselves; whilst Chinese women have bound feet, and are too weak even to bear the weight of their own clothes..." (Greenhalgh, 15)

During this time of reform, there also was an increase in industrialization. Industrialization created jobs for women outside of the home. With new work outside of the family compound, women with bound feet not as able to get out. This led to women with unbound feet able to get of the house. The custom of binding feet slowed modernization because it kept such a large number of possible workers at home. (Greenhalgh, 15)

The increase of Westerners also influenced the downfall of footbinding. Footbinding was ridiculed by Westerners, and in order to prevent national humiliation, the custom of footbinding needed to be given up. New leaders in 1912 after overthrowing Manchu dynasty passed number of strict anti-footbinding decrees. (Greenhalgh, 16)

'''1929 survey''':

2.3% girls born before 1900 had unbound feet

95.1% girls born after 1910 had unbound feet

This survey shows the dramatic decrease in custom of footbinding. Women who already had bound feet were unlikely to follow laws and unbind their feet. This was primarily because of the pain and slim chance foot would regain natural shape. (Greenhalgh, 16)

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

= Classroom Presentation =
[[Media:Footbinding.pptx]] by Mallory Wilsted

= Works Cited =
Ebrey, Patrica Buckley. "The Cambridge Illustrated History of China". New York, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 2d ed.

Greenhalgh, Susan. “Bound Feet, Hobbled Lives: Women in Old China.” ''Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies''. Vol. 2, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), pp. 7- 21

Three Kingdoms

2013-04-17T08:26:45Z

Christopher W:

= Introduction =
The Three Kingdoms period (220-280 AD) was a time in Chinese history when three different Kingdoms claimed the right to rule over all of China. The Three Kingdoms were Wu (吳), Shu (蜀), and Wei (魏). During the 60 years of the Three Kingdoms period, and about 40 years prior, these 3 groups forged alliances, broke promises, and battled each other until a 4th kingdom, Jin, was established (265-420 AD) and ended the period of the Three Kingdoms. Chinese historians now believe that the events of the fall of the Han Dynasty and the rise of the Three Kingdoms stretches back to 184 AD with the Yellow Turban Rebellion.

== The Yellow Turban Rebellion ==
In 184 AD there was a massive peasant uprising. Famine, floods, high taxes, and corrupt government plagued the peasants and caused them to band together in order to survive. The famine in the north caused the peasants to flee south in order to find food and work so they could sustain their families. The high taxes were a result of the military building fortifications to defend the Han Dynasty from foreign invaders. The corruption in the government was caused by a group known as the Ten Attendants. These 10 men were eunuchs of the court, and they held a powerful sway over Emperor Ling for their own personal gain. All of these different problems led the people to believe that the Emperor had lost his Mandate of Heaven, which is the right to rule.
A Taoist religious group led by Zhang Jue was quickly gathering support of the peasant faction, and was even rallying some politicians and militarists into their ranks. Tens of thousands of Yellow Turban soldiers rose up and destroyed many political offices. The imperial armies were sent to ride out and face them in battle. After many months of battle the Yellow Turban Rebellion was quashed, but in the following years a few more similar uprisings would take place, and would be put down. Many of the military leaders were granted positions of power from the emperor, which would only continue to grind the gears towards ending the Han Dynasty.

== Dong Zhuo and the Alliance==
Emperor Ling died in 189 AD and there was a power struggle between the eunuchs and He Jin. A warlord named Dong Zhuo seized control of the capital, took away the rule of Emperor Shao, and granted it to his younger brother Liu Xie and he became Emperor Xian, the last emperor of the Han Dynasty. Emperor Xian was only 8 years old, and Dong Zhuo took advantage of this and all but named himself emperor. Dong Zhuo became the first man since Xiao He in Emperor Gaozu’s court to carry a sword in the Imperial Court.

A coalition army led by Yuan Shao marched towards the capital Luoyang. Dong Zhuo evacuated the city and moved the capital to Chang’an in the west. Dong Zhuo ordered Luoyang pillaged and burned by his own men so that the allied coalition could not use anything in the city after their long march. Internal turmoil plagued the allied coalition, and Dong Zhuo marched his army against them causing panic and fear in the allies’ hearts. Dong Zhuo would become so corrupt and cause great economic inflation that he was eventually assassinated by his own foster son Lu Bu, by order of imperial decree.

== Cao Cao extends his grasp ==

The empire was thrown into chaos, even with Emperor Xian at the helm. Finally after a year of war, a warlord by the name Cao Cao was able to help unify the empire and became a chancellor to the emperor. Cao Cao was able to convince the young emperor to move the capital city once more to Xuchang. Luoyang was destroyed, and Chang’an was not under his military control. Many of the remaining warlords and government officials saw Cao Cao as a usurper of the throne and in 200 AD Yuan Shao sent an army of 100,000 troops towards Xuchang. A mighty battle took place in Guandu, and Cao Cao was able to defeat this massive army. Cao Cao would begin to expand his newly gained territory by sending troops out in all directions to pacify the remaining warlords and creating a unified empire. Cao Cao sent his army south to pacify the southern Wu clan. On his way south he also encountered Liu Bei, an adversary from previous battles, and sought to destroy his army.

== The Battle of Red Cliffs ==
Liu Bei was pushed out of Changban and forced to flee southward from Cao Cao’s forces. An alliance was set up between Liu Bei and Sun Quan to repel the onslaught of Cao Cao and preserve their people. Cao Cao claimed that his soldiers numbered 830,000, but Zhou Yu, the military advisor for Sun Quan, sated after the Battle of Red Cliffs that the number was closer to 250,000. The alliance combined to make a force of about 50,000 soldiers, which was still a 5:1 ratio against the oncoming army.

The Battle of Red Cliffs took place in the winter of 208 AD. The majority of Cao Cao’s army would be placed on ships, and were pushed together very close as to reduce the motion of the boats and reduce the amount of sea sickness among his troops. Zhuge Liang, an advisor to Liu Bei and an expert military strategist, created the plan to use a decoy, Huang Gai, to defect to Cao Cao’s army. When Huang Gai’s boats reached those of Cao Cao’s he lit fire to them and rammed them into Cao Cao’s ships containing his troops. The south eastern winds fanned the flames back towards Cao Cao’s forces, creating an inferno, destroying ships, horses, and soldiers. The alliance then entered the battle with their 50,000 and pushed Cao Cao back to the point of retreat.

== The Breaking of the Alliance and the Three Kingdoms ==
The next 11 years would be a continued war between Sun Quan, Liu Bei and Cao Cao. The alliance would break, and Liu Bei and Sun Quan would become enemies, thus splitting the empire into 3 different sections. In 220 AD Cao Cao passes away and his son Cao Pi forces Emperor Xian to go into retirement, and claims the throne for himself. The Kingdom of Wei is established and the Three Kingdoms period begins.

The following year, 221 AD, Liu Bei declares himself emperor and creates the Kingdom of Shu, and in 222 AD Sun Quan declares independence and claims the title King of Wu, and then in 229 AD proclaims himself Emperor of Wu. Now with three different kingdoms vying to unify China under their own regime, wars and battles are a most common occurrence over the next 50 years.

== The Sima Family ==
The Sima family enters now into the history books, as a powerful force that ultimately ends up ending the rule of Wu, Shu, and Wei. Sima Yi was a general and politician serving the Wei kingdom. He served under Cao Cao, Cao Pi, and Cao Rui as a military advisor. When Cao Rui died Sima Yi was given some power to help govern the Wei kingdom. The Cao family did not like this one bit and placed titles upon Sima Yi that sounded grand, but in fact stripped away all of the power he held. After he and his son passed away, his grandson Sima Yan sought to become the emperor.

== The Fall of Shu ==
The Kingdom of Shu was the first to fall. Zhuge Liang passed away and Emperor Liu Shan was now lacking the guidance of such an esteemed councilor. Once again the eunuchs of the court sought to gain power from the emperor and threw the kingdom into chaos. While the emperor was dealing with the eunuchs, the kingdom of Wei launched an attack (263 AD) that forced the surrender of the Shu kingdom forever. The kingdom of Shu lasted 43 years, and was now an ended idea. Liu Shan was granted a title and moved back to the rebuilt city of Luoyang. His title is translated as The Duke of Safety and Happiness, which of course held no power whatsoever.

== The Fall of Wei ==
The Kingdom of Wei was the next to fall. In 260 AD Cao Huan became the emperor and tried to assassinate Sima Zhao. The assassination failed, but Sima Zhao passed away shortly thereafter. Sima Yan, sick of his family being treated badly by the Cao family, plotted to become the emperor of Wei. Cao Huan was forced to abdicate his throne, much like Emperor Xian, and Sima Yan became the new emperor. The difference now being that he overthrew the Wei Dynasty, and created his own Jin Dynasty, which would rule from 264-420 AD.

== The Fall of Wu ==
The last of the kingdoms to fall was the Kingdom of Wu. After the death of Sun Quan in 252 AD the state of Wu went into decline. The Kingdom of Wei and the Sima family fought hard to make sure their enemy would not rise again to their former power. After the collapse of Shu and Wei, and the emergence of the Kingdom of Jin, Emperor Sun Xiu of Wu passed away and the throne was given to Sun Hao. Sun Hao would become a tyrant and killed and exiled many members of his own court. The Kingdom of Jin just needed to wait until all of Wu’s competent officials were gone and then they would make their move. In 279 AD the Kingdom of Jin entered into the Kingdom of Wu, defeated them in battle and forced the surrender of Wu.

== Enter the Jin Dynasty ==
The year is now 280 AD and the period of the Three Kingdoms had come to an end at the hands of the Kingdom of Jin, now the Jin Dynasty.

= Power Point Presentation =
[[Media: Lance_Three_Kingdoms_Power_Point.pptx]]
= References =
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%ACn_Dynasty
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_the_Han_Dynasty
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Cao
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Zhuo
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Kingdoms#Decline_and_end_of_the_Three_Kingdoms
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_Yi
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuge_Liang
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Three_Kingdoms_period
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Bei
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Quan
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Three_Kingdoms
*http://www.paulnoll.com/China/Dynasty/dynasty-Three-Kingdoms.html

Eunuchs

2013-04-17T08:22:08Z

Christopher W:

'''Chinese Eunuchs'''

[[File:Eunuch 355x500.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Photo of a Castrated Eunuch - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AA_eunuch_of_Qing_Dynasty.JPG here] for original source. Author Unknown]]
[[File:Li_Lianying.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Photo of a the Eunuch Li Lianying (One of the last head Eunuchs, deposed in 1908) - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ALi_Lianying.jpg here] for original source. Author Unkown]]

==Eunuchs and Political Power==
Eunuchs originated around 2000 years ago in the Imperial court. The tradition of using eunuchs was first presented in the Han Dynasty. They would often run the day to day affairs of the emperor’s court and were often the emperor’s closest friends. In the Ming Dynasty over 20,000 Eunuchs were employed in the Imperial city until 1924 when the last 1500 of them were banished from the Forbidden City. Eunuchs were often viewed as a privilegded class because of their close relationship to the emperor.
The Eunuchs were often seen as scheming and corrupt… often the case as they were the only connection to the emperor. Any military generals or anyone outside the emperor’s direct family could never directly talk to the emperor, so they had to go through the eunuchs for information which would ask for bribes in return. This gave Eunuchs a lot of power.
Although they were often viewed as corrupt, they also made significant contributions to the Chinese culture and civilization. The Eunuch Cai Lun is credited with inventing paper, while others were the first to play classical Chinese music. The Eunuch Zheng Ho was Chinas greatest explorer.

==Way of life of a Eunuch==
Often times Eunuchs chose their way of life. They were usually from poor families and chose that way of life in order to provide money and value to their family name. Often times, the parents would castrate the sons at an early age so they had a better chance of becoming a Eunuch. Becoming a head Eunuch was one of the highest honors someone could receive in China at this time. Even ordinary Eunuchs commanded respect due to their closeness with the Emperor and his family.

==Castration procedure==
Typically this was done with a slash of a knife outside a hut with only hot chili sauce as an anesthetic. After the procedure they would place a plug in the wound and would leave it there for 3 days. The plug was then removed and if urine came out it was considered a success. Many would die due to infections and loss of blood. Many of these boys were only 9 or 10 years of age.
Once these boys became Eunuchs, they often carried their genitals in a jar attached to their belt. That way once they died; they could be buried with it and be reincarnated as a full man. This mixed with the castration often made eunuchs have a bad odor. They often wet their beds and were too weak to perform hard labor. After the procedure with the lack of testosterone would turn the males feminine. They would have high pitched voices and acted very feminine.

=Eunuchs and relationship with emperor=
Eunuchs were often the only men other than the emperor who was allowed to enter the inner courtyards of the Forbidden City. This is where the emperor, the imperial family, and the concubines lived. All military personal and other men were not allowed to enter the inner sanctum. This often led to eunuchs being to go between for the military generals and the emperor. Often times the Eunuchs would accept bribes in order to pass information to the emperor and other such tasks. Often times, the Emperor would be raised with eunuchs at a young age and would become close friends with them during the course of his lifetime.

==Court affairs==
The Eunuchs court duties were abundant. The majority of the day to day operations were taken care of the the emperors favourite Eunuch whom leaded an entire staff of thousands of other Eunuchs. Day to day work for the Eunuchs would be tasks such as cooking, cleaning, record keeping, and frendship for the emperor and concubines.

==Eunuchs and the concubines==
The Emperors concubines were highly guarded by the emperor and were never allowed outside the inner sanctum of the forbidden city. The eunuchs were the few men privileged to see the concubines and build relations were them. All other men were forbid to be around them in fear they may corrupt or impregnate them. Eunuchs on the other hand did not have this problem, so the emperor trusted them around the women.

==The Last Eunuch==
The last imperial Eunuch was Sun Yaoting. He died on December 17 1996 at the age of 93 in a Beijing Temple. In 1911 after the communists came to power, all Eunuchs were kicked out of the Forbidden City, never to return again. A few of them committed suicide by jumping in the moats of the Forbidden City.

'''REFERENCES'''

1. http://factsanddetails.com/china.php?itemid=43&catid=2&subcatid=2 (EUNUCHS IN CHINA, By 2008 Jeffrey Hays)

2. http://www.beijingmadeeasy.com/beijing-history/chinese-eunuchs (Chinese Eunuchs)

Eunuchs

2013-04-17T08:21:38Z

Christopher W:

'''Chinese Eunuchs'''

[[File:Eunuch 355x500.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Photo of a Castrated Eunuch - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AA_eunuch_of_Qing_Dynasty.JPG here] for original source.]]
[[File:Li_Lianying.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Photo of a the Eunuch Li Lianying (One of the last head Eunuchs, deposed in 1908) - Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ALi_Lianying.jpg here] for original source. Author Unkown]]

==Eunuchs and Political Power==
Eunuchs originated around 2000 years ago in the Imperial court. The tradition of using eunuchs was first presented in the Han Dynasty. They would often run the day to day affairs of the emperor’s court and were often the emperor’s closest friends. In the Ming Dynasty over 20,000 Eunuchs were employed in the Imperial city until 1924 when the last 1500 of them were banished from the Forbidden City. Eunuchs were often viewed as a privilegded class because of their close relationship to the emperor.
The Eunuchs were often seen as scheming and corrupt… often the case as they were the only connection to the emperor. Any military generals or anyone outside the emperor’s direct family could never directly talk to the emperor, so they had to go through the eunuchs for information which would ask for bribes in return. This gave Eunuchs a lot of power.
Although they were often viewed as corrupt, they also made significant contributions to the Chinese culture and civilization. The Eunuch Cai Lun is credited with inventing paper, while others were the first to play classical Chinese music. The Eunuch Zheng Ho was Chinas greatest explorer.

==Way of life of a Eunuch==
Often times Eunuchs chose their way of life. They were usually from poor families and chose that way of life in order to provide money and value to their family name. Often times, the parents would castrate the sons at an early age so they had a better chance of becoming a Eunuch. Becoming a head Eunuch was one of the highest honors someone could receive in China at this time. Even ordinary Eunuchs commanded respect due to their closeness with the Emperor and his family.

==Castration procedure==
Typically this was done with a slash of a knife outside a hut with only hot chili sauce as an anesthetic. After the procedure they would place a plug in the wound and would leave it there for 3 days. The plug was then removed and if urine came out it was considered a success. Many would die due to infections and loss of blood. Many of these boys were only 9 or 10 years of age.
Once these boys became Eunuchs, they often carried their genitals in a jar attached to their belt. That way once they died; they could be buried with it and be reincarnated as a full man. This mixed with the castration often made eunuchs have a bad odor. They often wet their beds and were too weak to perform hard labor. After the procedure with the lack of testosterone would turn the males feminine. They would have high pitched voices and acted very feminine.

=Eunuchs and relationship with emperor=
Eunuchs were often the only men other than the emperor who was allowed to enter the inner courtyards of the Forbidden City. This is where the emperor, the imperial family, and the concubines lived. All military personal and other men were not allowed to enter the inner sanctum. This often led to eunuchs being to go between for the military generals and the emperor. Often times the Eunuchs would accept bribes in order to pass information to the emperor and other such tasks. Often times, the Emperor would be raised with eunuchs at a young age and would become close friends with them during the course of his lifetime.

==Court affairs==
The Eunuchs court duties were abundant. The majority of the day to day operations were taken care of the the emperors favourite Eunuch whom leaded an entire staff of thousands of other Eunuchs. Day to day work for the Eunuchs would be tasks such as cooking, cleaning, record keeping, and frendship for the emperor and concubines.

==Eunuchs and the concubines==
The Emperors concubines were highly guarded by the emperor and were never allowed outside the inner sanctum of the forbidden city. The eunuchs were the few men privileged to see the concubines and build relations were them. All other men were forbid to be around them in fear they may corrupt or impregnate them. Eunuchs on the other hand did not have this problem, so the emperor trusted them around the women.

==The Last Eunuch==
The last imperial Eunuch was Sun Yaoting. He died on December 17 1996 at the age of 93 in a Beijing Temple. In 1911 after the communists came to power, all Eunuchs were kicked out of the Forbidden City, never to return again. A few of them committed suicide by jumping in the moats of the Forbidden City.

'''REFERENCES'''

1. http://factsanddetails.com/china.php?itemid=43&catid=2&subcatid=2 (EUNUCHS IN CHINA, By 2008 Jeffrey Hays)

2. http://www.beijingmadeeasy.com/beijing-history/chinese-eunuchs (Chinese Eunuchs)

Han Dynasty

2013-04-17T08:13:07Z

Christopher W:

The Han Dynasty lasted from 206 BCE until 220 CE.

Welcome to the Han Dynasty. You have chancellors, and you have Emperors.

=The Chancellors of Han=

The chancellors in succession, starting from 206 B.C.E. forward, are Xiao He, Cao Can, Dong Zhuo, Cao Cao, and Cao Pi.

=The Emperors of Han=

The Emperors in succession, starting from 202 B.C.E. forward, are Emperor Gaozu, Emperor Wen, Emperor Wu, Emperor Guangwu, and Emperor Xian.

=The Misfit, Wang Mang=

There is only one person unaccounted for. The one person whose rule marked the split the Han Dynasty into western and eastern halves. That'd be Wang Mang, a Han official who seized some power amid the others, and founded the short-lived Xin Dynasty from 9 A.D. to 23 A.D.

=How did it all start?=

It all started with Qin Shi Huang. See, he died, in 210 B.C., leaving a vacuum of power opportunity. Xiang Yu of Chu struggled with a man like his brother, Liu Bang of Han, to take the throne. Their struggles led to the Gaixia Battle. During the war, Han Xin of Han, a servent of Liu Bang of Han, kidnapped the wife of Xiang Yu of Chu. so naturally, he grabs 100,000 warriors to help him go and retrieve her. Lots of battles happen. She's located. But she feels guilty for being the cause of so much bloodshed, and she commits suicide. With her gone, Xiang Yu of Chu basically loses his mojo, and he commits suicide.

=Emperor Gaozu=
==Liu Bang Becomes the First Emperor of Han==

As a result of the death of Xiang Yu, Liu Bang of Han formally becomes Emperor Gaozu of Han, the first Emperor of the Han Dynasty, not to be confused with Emperor Gaozu of the later Tang Dynasty. Emperor Gaozu rules with Chancellor Xiao He. Emperor Gaozu rules 202 B.C.E. to 195 B.C.E. He ushered in the Western Han Dynasty. He emerged from the peasant class. He preferred Confucianism over Legalism. He set up the capital of Western Han at Luoyang. He died as a result of an arrow wound from Ying Bu's rebellion, one lucky rebellion of many.

=Emperor Wen=

Next came Emperor Wen, who ruled with Chancellor Cao Can. Emperor Wen ruled 180 B.C.E. to 157 B.C.E. He was Emperor Gaozu's son. He immediately put down the Lu rebellion, which tried to usurp power from his mom, before he came to the throne. He was heavily influenced by Daoism, especially because his mom taught him Daoist principles.

He was known as a kind Emperor. He tried to decrease taxes and made sort of a welfare program. He was considered quite superstitious, and he built many Temples, before he died.

=Emperor Wu=

Emperor Wu of Han technically ruled 141 B.C.E. to 87 B.C.E. He favored Confucianism over the extant Daoism. He expanded the Western Han Territories, especially to the North. He even invaded modern day Korea.

Like Qin Shi Huang, he became obsessed with immortality, and tried to get magicians to assist him to live forever, but harshly punished any sorcery or witchcraft done elsewhere. He died with no worthy heir to take the throne.

=Emperor Guangwu=

Emperor Guangwu of Han rules 5 B.C.E. to 57 A.C.E. He restores the Han Dynasty after a rebellion, creating the Eastern Han Dynasty. He put down many uprisings. His rule was thrift and efficient, even lax on laws.

=Emperor Xian=

Emperor Xian ruled from 189 to 220 A.C.E.

Emperor Xian rules with Chancellor Dong Zhuo. At this time, it seems as though the Chancellors began to usurp power from the Emperors of Han.

Chancellor Dong Zhuo, under the guise of Emperor Xian's forged signature, basically controlled the Han Empire. He did so successfully, under Xian's nose, till his (Dong Zhuo's) assassination in 192 A.D. It was Dong Zhuo who moved the Western Capital of Han to the Eastern Liang province, modern day Gansu. Emperor Xian struggled over power with the next Chancellor, Cao Cao.

Cao Cao played backseat driver to Emperor Xian very often. Cao Cao eventually forced Emperor Xian to abdicate, giving his own son, Chancellor Cao Pi, more power.

These actions by Cao Cao and Cao Pi ultimately broke apart the Han Dynasty.

=Summary of the Effects of the Han Dynasty=

The Han Dynasty spanned over four centuries. It's considered the Golden age of Chinese History. Even today, the major ethnic group in China considers itself Han. Even the Chinese language is called the "Han"-language (汉语).

=WORKS CITED=

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gaixia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Han

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han

Qin Shihuangdi

2013-04-17T08:06:58Z

Christopher W:

They call me brutal, a Tyrant, a mass murderer. Some men have cursed my name for more than two thousand years; others have blessed it. I was the First, and the greatest, Emperor of Qin. Without me, there would be no China as you know it today. Brutal? Tyrant? I think NOT!

''A new age is inaugurated by the Emperor;
''Rules and measures are rectified,
''The myriad things set in order,
''Human affairs are made clear
''And there is harmony between fathers and sons.
''The Emperor in his sagacity, benevolence and justice
''Has made all laws and principles manifest...
''Great are the Emperor's achievements,
''Men attend diligently to basic tasks,
''Farming is encouraged, secondary pursue discouraged,
''All the common people prosper;
''All men under the sky
''Toil with a single purpose;
''Tools and measures are made uniform,
''The written script is standardized;
''Wherever the sun and moon shine...
''He works day and night without rest;
''He defines the laws, leaving nothing in doubt,
''Making known what is forbidden.
''The local officials have their duties,
''Administration is smoothly carried out,
''All is done correctly, all according to plan...
''No evil or impropriety is allowed,
''All strive to be good men and true,
''And exert themselves in tasks great and small;
''None dares to idle or ignore his duties...
''Great is the virtue of our Emperor
''Who pacifies ail four corners of the earth,
''Who punishes traitors, roots out evil men,
''And with profitable measures brings prosperity.
''Tasks are done at the proper season,
''All things flourish and grow;
''The common people know peace
''And have laid aside weapons and armor...
''Men delight in his rule,
''All understanding the law and discipline.
''The universe entire
''Is our Emperor's realm...
''Wherever human life is found,
''All acknowledge his suzerainty,
''His achievements surpass those of the Five Emperors,
''His kindness reaches even the beasts of the field;
''All creatures benefit from his virtue,
''All live in peace at home.
(Andrea and Overfield 97-100)

== Beginnings ==
I was born in the year 259 BC in Handan, the capital of Zhao. In the beginning, my mother was a concubine of Lu Buwei, who would eventually become Prime Minister under my father. My father was so struck by this concubine that he eventually took her as his own. From that union I came to be. I was given the name Ying Zheng to honor my ancestors, and Zhao Zheng to honor my family. Zheng was my personal name. (Qian 35) My father was KIng Zhuangxiang of Qin. He became king in 250 BC but his reign only lasted until 247 BC when he died. I took his place at thirteen years old. I became King Zheng of Qin. As I was not of age and thus not fit to rule, Lu Buwei, my Prime Minister helped me rule. Li Si was one of his retainers. One of the first commands I gave was to begin construction on my tomb, a wise decision as it turns out, for, as all men are mortal, I was not destined to live long after the completion of my great work. Not for me, the peace I strove for. I was born to strife and conflict and such a life was all I knew. (UNESCO)

=== Controversy over Birth ===
According to Grand Historian Sima Qian, my father was not King Zhuangxiang. Sima Qian claimed that my actual father was Lu Buwei. The Grand Historian claimed that my mother was already pregnant when King Zhuangxiang took her as his concubine. Lu Buwei was outraged when KIng Zhuangxiang took the concubine (my mother) as his own. Lu Buwei let King Zhuangxiang have my mother as his concubine because he hoped he would get something in return someday. He eventually was made Prime Minister by KIng Zhuangxiang. (Qian 161-162) I respected Lu Buwei highly and referred to him as Uncle but I never wondered if he was my father. If Sima Qian's allegations were true, then that would have made me an illegitimate ruler.
'''Contemporary Commentator'''
I think one must not forget that the Grand Historian Sima Qian wrote his records during the Han Dynasty. He essentially wrote the history of the Qin to fit the Han worldview. This alleged controversy over the birth of Qin Shihuangdi could have been entirely fabricated by the Grand Historian as an attempt to discredit the Qin Dynasty. The possibility of the First Emperor's birth being illegitimate paints the Qin Dynasty in an unfavorable light as well as tarnishes the legacy of Qin Shihuangdi. This mechanism could have been used by the Grand Historian to reduce the importance of the Qin Dynasty while at the same time promoting the superiority of the Han Dynasty. In the study of history it is important to be objective and unfortunately there seems to be a Han bias to the writings of Sima Qian.
== The State of Qin ==
My nation, Qin, was one of many states in existence at the end of the Zhou Dynasty. In 361 BC, following the advice of Shang Yang, or Lord Shang as he was widely known, my nation began to be ruled according to the tenants of Legalism. At the time I ascended to the throne, Qin was strong, peaceful and prosperous. The people were law-abiding citizens and paid taxes to the state. In 264 BC, shortly before I was born, our nation was visited by a follower of the man called Confucius. His name was Xunzi. He reported that our people "stood in deep awe" of the officials. The officials he described as "serious and sincere". Where, I ask, is the evidence of tyranny later ascribed to my state? Our people were well cared for; what other nation, at that same time, could say as much? (Ebrey 49-52,60)

=== The Teachings of Lord Shang ===
Lord Shang arrived in Qin state in 361 BC. As Chief Minister he instituted many reforms that transformed Qin into a more efficient and powerful state congruent with Legalism. He rejected the Confucian virtues of humanity and rightness saying they have no practical use in political life. Rather he advocated strengthening the power of the ruler. War was seen as a necessary means to achieve territorial expansion and to make the people strong, disciplined, and submissive. He advocated the destruction of the old feudal order replacing it instead with a strong central government headed by an absolute ruler. Shang saw the rule of law as an important tool of promoting discipline administered by an impartial bureaucracy. Severe punishments would discourage the breaking of these laws while people were generously rewarded for reporting those that did. Agriculture was the basis of the economy. Shang said that the state depended on the agriculture and war for its peace. The officials must be consistent in their conduct, if the officials are consistent then the state is well governed. Single-mindedness is something that should be strived for. The people were to live frugal and obedient lives devoted to the interests of the state in peace and war. (Bary and Bloom 191-195)
=== My Rule of Qin ===
My rule of Qin was marked by constant warfare between Qin and the other warring states. Since I was too young to rule when I ascended to the throne I entrusted the affairs of the state to my chief ministers. My chief ministers consisted of my Prime Minister Lu Buwei, his retainer Li Si; and my generals, Meng Ao, Wang Ji, and Lord Biao. In the first year of my rule, General Meng Ao crushed a revolt. The next nine years would be characterized by a struggle for territory between Qin and the other states. Generals Wang Ji and Meng Ao would die in this period. In the year 238 BC at the age of 21 I received the cap of manhood and received my sword and girdle. I was now able to rule my Kingdom on my own. (Qian 36-37)

=== Attempted Coup d'etat ===
In the same year I turned twenty-one there was a revolt in my Kingdom by a "eunuch" in my household, Lao Ai. Lao Ai was not really a eunuch. He was part of a bigger plot to instigate a revolt and overthrow me.
In the years since my father King Zhuangxiang died, my mother continued a secret relationship with my prime minister Lu Buwei. Lu Buwei realized that if he continued this relationship, he would risk the chance of a scandal. So he set out to find a replacement. He found a suitable replacement in Lao Ai. The queen dowager requested he be smuggled into her chambers. Lu Buwei suggested Lao Ai be subjected to a mock castration. If Lao Ai was seen as a eunuch, he would have closer access to the queen dowager. The queen dowager bribed an official into pretending to carry out the castration. Lao Ai and the queen dowager then began a relationship that bore two sons. Lao Ai and the queen dowager suggested that if I died, one of these sons would succeed me on the throne. Through his connection with the queen dowager, Lao Ai built up a following of ambitious men looking for government office. In the year 238 BC Lao Ai planned a revolt, he forged my seal and the seal of the queen dowager and called out district troops and prepared to move on the palace. I sent out my army and crushed his rebellion. I seized Lao Ai and his supporters and made an example of them. I beheaded his followers and I had Lao Ai torn in half by two carriages. I had his whole family killed along with his two sons. I found out Lu Buwei was involved in this plot so I had him removed from his post. He later committed suicide in shame. ( Qian 37-38, 163-165)

=== The Qin Military ===

As a result of Lord Shang's legalists policies, we, in Qin, developed an aggressive military. Scholars estimate that Qin's population was about 5 or 6 million. Of this population anywhere between 8 percent to 20 percent of the population is estimated to have served in the army. This gave me a grand army that varied anywhere from 500,000 to 1 million strong. My army was very strong and very capable. The army was capable of equipping 1 million armored infantry, 1000 chariots, and 10,000 horses. My army had access to the best weapons available. Iron swords, crossbows, chariots and the best armors. As a result of the strong central government and institutions in Qin, my army was well trained and disciplined. The strong agriculture society in Qin made sure my army was well fed and supplied. With these military capabilities I would be able to wage war effectively against the other states. Since my army was capable of a massive amount of armored infantry, they did the majority of the fighting. Light infantry was used as shock troops and were sent in first followed by the main force of armored infantry. The calvary and chariots would bring up the rear attack the enemy's flanks and charging the weakened lines. This strategy enabled my troops to overwhelm the enemy. (Kiser and Cai 521-522)

== My Campaign of Unification ==
=== Initial Campaigns ===
After the removal of Lu Buwei as prime minister, I appointed Li Si as my chief minister. Li Si urged me to take over Han to strike fear in the other states.because in doing so I would terrify the other states.With my kingdom firmly under my control, I could turn my attentions toward...pacification... of my warring neighbors. For over two hundred years they fought with each other. Countless lives were lost.

On Li Si's urging I moved on Han first. Han fell relatively quickly. My army seized the King of Han and took over all of his territory in 230 BC. The following year my army prepared to move on Zhao. By the year 228 BC my army had captured Handan and the king of Zhao and had control over Zhao territory. I traveled to Handan where I had all the enemies of my mother's family killed. In the year 226 BC my army attacked the Yan capital of Ji. My forces succeeded in capturing Ji and defeating the army of Crown Prince Dan of Yan. I had the Crown Prince beheaded for his attempt on my life. The King of Yan escaped to the region of Laiodong where he seized control and made himself king of that region. (Qian 38-41)
=== Assassination Attempt ===
The year before in 227 BC, Crown Prince Dan was fearful of the possibility of my troops moving on Yan. In desperation he sent an assassin, Jing Ke to kill me. Jing Ke planned to get close to me by posing as an envoy to the King of Yan. In order to get an audience with me he would bring me the severed head of my former general, Fan Yuqi. I had a bounty out for his head. Jing Ke convinced Fan Yuqi to kill himself so the Jing Ke could put his severed head in a box. Then he acquired the sharpest dagger he could find and coated the tip in poison. Jing Ke wrapped the dagger in a map to be presented to me. I received Jing Ke in my palace and welcomed him warmly. I was pleased by the severed head of Fan Yuqi. When I asked him to bring me the map, he unveiled it to reveal a dagger! He aimed it at my chest and I lunged back and tried to draw my sword. Qin law forbade any weapons to be carried by the people who waited on me. I could not draw my sword so I ran away from Jing Ke until my doctor managed to knock Jing Ke with his medicine bag. I finally managed to draw my sword and a slashed at Jing Ke wounding him eight times. Defeated he told me about his failure to kill me for the Crown Prince of Yan. As punishment I had Jing Ke torn limb from limb. After this incident I ordered more troops to Zhao and then ordered the commander in Zhao to attack Yan. When I found Crown Prince Dan, I had him beheaded. (Qian 172-176)
=== The Final Campaigns ===
Following the fall of the capital of Yan, my army moved on the capital of Wei, Daliang in 225 BC. My forces diverted water from the Yellow river and flooded the capital causing the walls to collapse. The king of Wei capitulated and I took over his territory. This was a largely uneventful campaign. I then conquered Chu (Jing) in 223 BC. The Chu army was crushed and the king killed. The following year I called up large amounts of troops and moved to attack the Yan region of Liaodong. I finally succeeded in capturing the king of Yan, King Xi. In 221 BC I marched my army south from Yan into Qi where I seized King Jian of Qi. With this victory I acheived unification of China and I brought the states under my rule. (Qian 41-42)

Here is the order in which the major states fell:
*Han in 230 BC
*Zhao 228 BC
*Wei 225 BC
*Chu 223 BC
*Yan 222 BC
*Qi 221 BC
(Ebrey pp40,60)
In just nine years I succeeded in ending the period of warring states. I proclaimed myself emperor and established the Qin Dynasty. From this day forth I was known as Qin Shihuangdi. The first emperor.

== Qin Shihuangdi ==
=== First Emperor ===
This is what my new name meant.
*‘First’ because I fully expected my Empire to last for 10,000 years, if not forever. This was a name each of my descendants would share. I was Shi haungdi, my son would be Ershi huangdi, his son Sanshi huangdi and so forth.
*‘August and Divine’ as I was now at least equal to a god.
Together, they meant ‘Emperor’. I was fully the equal of the mythical emperors of our past.
[[File:Qin Shihuangdi.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Qin Shihuangdi photo by Tonynetone]]
=== Naming Debate ===
Perhaps there are some of you who wonder why I am sometimes called Qin Shihuangdi and sometimes Qin Shihuang. Originally, I chose the name Shihuangdi, for the reasons I just explained. In later years, the historians felt a need to connect me with my kingdom and they added the "Qin" to the front of my name, where the family name would usually go. This made me Qin Shihuangdi. Even later, it was decided that my name should only have the same number of syllables that any average, ordinary person had- 3. So, they dropped the last syllable "di" (the one that meant "divine") and I became known as Qin Shihuang. (If your name is still known two thousand years from now, perhaps you will find it changed as well.)
=== My Rule as Emperor ===
One of the first things I did as Emperor was carry out sweeping changes in order to unify and stabilize the Empire. With the help of my prime minister Li Si and my ministers I divided the empire into 36 commanderies that answered to the central court. Each province was administered by a governor and a military commander. I abolished all feudal ranks and privileges. In an effort to protect against armed insurrection I disarmed the population and made it illegal to possess any weapon of any kind. The rich and powerful families of the empire, 120,000 in all, were moved to the capital so I could better monitor them. I made the legalist ideas of Lord Shang, Han Fei, and Li Si state philosophy. Justice for people who dared break the law was swift and fierce. Punishments were severe and often resulted in execution or forced labor on the many projects in my empire. I used forced labor to connect the many parts of the Great Wall, and to build my magnificent palace and tomb. I also improved the roads in the empire.(Ebrey 60-63)
=== The Burning of Books ===
Criticism was not tolerated in my empire. In an effort to control knowledge I had to act. The records of the past could be used to criticize myself and the government. In 213 BC I ordered any books and records of historians other than the state of Qin burned. The Classic of Documents and the Classic of Odes were to be burned as well. Anyone caught in the marketplace discussing either the Documents or the Odes would be put to death. I ordered 460 scholars put to death to eliminate any and all opposition to my rule. See also: [[Book burning in Qin Dynasty]]
=== Standardization ===
In an effort to unify my empire I standardized the weights and measures, the gauge of wagon wheels, and developed a uniform system of writing. I ordered new coins for my reign as well. They were round, with a square hole in the middle. The shape was suggestive of eternity, round which represented heaven, and a square hole which represented the world. The hole also made it easy smooth out the edges. Many coins could be stacked on a square rod and the edges filed smooth at one time.

In 220 BC I took a tour of inspection of my empire. In honor of my great accomplishments, I erected stone tablets carved with everything I achieved. The quote at the beginning of this page is from a tablet I erected at Mt. Langya.
If you examine the quote, you will notice a common theme- all my accomplishments brought peace and/or order to my troubled realm.

Under my rule, for the first time the entire country was ruled by one powerful centralized administration. My government wielded more power than any before. In might and magnificence, I was greater than all prior governments. My people were awed, and yes, afraid of my magnificence. For the next two thousand years (more or less) my pattern of centralized control would be the government of choice for China. If the country was not ruled by descendents of my body, it was at least ruled by descendents of my style of rule, descendents of spirit. (De Bary & Bloom, pp 227)

== My Death ==
After many assassination attempts I became obsessed with reaching immortality. I became obsessed with locating the mythical land of Peng Lai. Herbs brought from this place could grant me immortality. I spent large sums of money sending magicians to locate this mythical land. I dreamed of an ocean God in the shape of a giant fish that was blocking my efforts to locate Peng Lai. I ordered all my ships to carry equipment to seize a giant fish. I myself carried a crossbow just in case I happened across this giant fish. (Qian 61-62)
I established an Empire meant to last forever. But it was not to be. I died before my work was done in 210 BC. from illness. Only eight years after my death, the Qin dynasty was no more.
=== My Tomb ===

When I first ascended to the throne, I started work on my tomb at Mt. Li. After I became emperor I moved 700,000 men from all over the empire and ordered them to finish it. Replicas of palaces, scenic towers and the hundred officials were brought from around the empire to fill the tomb. Mercury was used to build imitations the hundred rivers, and the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, and the oceans and were built in a way that it seem to flow(Qian 63) I was buried with a full sized army of terra cotta warriors to protect me in the afterlife. These warriors were equipped with real weapons and real chariots. No two of these magnificent warriors was identical, they were all unique. (Ebrey 63) See also: [[ Terra Cotta Army]]
=== My Legacy ===
The Qin Dynasty was marked by aggressive rule and legalist ideals. But the institutions I created such as a centralized government, the standardization of weights and measures, and the unified writing sustem endure to this day. I reigned as Emperor for only 11 years. My "dynasty" didn't even last 10 years past my death. And yet, the land I unified still bears the name of my state. The unity '''I''' forged, the Empire '''I''' created, this has endured throughout the ages. In time the Han would fall and so too the dynasty that replaced them and the one that would replace them and so down to your day. True, my dynasty did not endure but my legacy, '''MY''' legacy remains.

== References ==
*Andrea, Alfred J. and Overfield, James H. "The Human Record: Sources of Global History", Vol 1. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994,2d. ed. pp. 97-100

*De Bary, WM. Theodore, and Irene Bloom, eds. Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume 1, From Earliest Times to 1600. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.

*Ebrey, Patricia. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

*Kiser, Edward, and Yong Kai. “War and Bureaucratization in Qin China: Exploring an Anomalous Case.” American Sociological Review, Vol. 68, No. 4, (August 2003), p. 511 – 539.

*Qian, Sima. Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty. Translated by Burton Watson. Hong Kong: Columbia University Press, 1993.

*World Heritage Site. UNESCO. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/441

== Classroom Presentations ==
[[File:Qin_Shihuangdi_Presentation_by_Emmanuel_Rivas.pptx]]

Qin Shihuangdi

2013-04-17T08:05:34Z

Christopher W:

They call me brutal, a Tyrant, a mass murderer. Some men have cursed my name for more than two thousand years; others have blessed it. I was the First, and the greatest, Emperor of Qin. Without me, there would be no China as you know it today. Brutal? Tyrant? I think NOT!

''A new age is inaugurated by the Emperor;
''Rules and measures are rectified,
''The myriad things set in order,
''Human affairs are made clear
''And there is harmony between fathers and sons.
''The Emperor in his sagacity, benevolence and justice
''Has made all laws and principles manifest...
''Great are the Emperor's achievements,
''Men attend diligently to basic tasks,
''Farming is encouraged, secondary pursue discouraged,
''All the common people prosper;
''All men under the sky
''Toil with a single purpose;
''Tools and measures are made uniform,
''The written script is standardized;
''Wherever the sun and moon shine...
''He works day and night without rest;
''He defines the laws, leaving nothing in doubt,
''Making known what is forbidden.
''The local officials have their duties,
''Administration is smoothly carried out,
''All is done correctly, all according to plan...
''No evil or impropriety is allowed,
''All strive to be good men and true,
''And exert themselves in tasks great and small;
''None dares to idle or ignore his duties...
''Great is the virtue of our Emperor
''Who pacifies ail four corners of the earth,
''Who punishes traitors, roots out evil men,
''And with profitable measures brings prosperity.
''Tasks are done at the proper season,
''All things flourish and grow;
''The common people know peace
''And have laid aside weapons and armor...
''Men delight in his rule,
''All understanding the law and discipline.
''The universe entire
''Is our Emperor's realm...
''Wherever human life is found,
''All acknowledge his suzerainty,
''His achievements surpass those of the Five Emperors,
''His kindness reaches even the beasts of the field;
''All creatures benefit from his virtue,
''All live in peace at home.
(Andrea and Overfield 97-100)

== Beginnings ==
I was born in the year 259 BC in Handan, the capital of Zhao. In the beginning, my mother was a concubine of Lu Buwei, who would eventually become Prime Minister under my father. My father was so struck by this concubine that he eventually took her as his own. From that union I came to be. I was given the name Ying Zheng to honor my ancestors, and Zhao Zheng to honor my family. Zheng was my personal name. (Qian 35) My father was KIng Zhuangxiang of Qin. He became king in 250 BC but his reign only lasted until 247 BC when he died. I took his place at thirteen years old. I became King Zheng of Qin. As I was not of age and thus not fit to rule, Lu Buwei, my Prime Minister helped me rule. Li Si was one of his retainers. One of the first commands I gave was to begin construction on my tomb, a wise decision as it turns out, for, as all men are mortal, I was not destined to live long after the completion of my great work. Not for me, the peace I strove for. I was born to strife and conflict and such a life was all I knew. (UNESCO)

=== Controversy over Birth ===
According to Grand Historian Sima Qian, my father was not King Zhuangxiang. Sima Qian claimed that my actual father was Lu Buwei. The Grand Historian claimed that my mother was already pregnant when King Zhuangxiang took her as his concubine. Lu Buwei was outraged when KIng Zhuangxiang took the concubine (my mother) as his own. Lu Buwei let King Zhuangxiang have my mother as his concubine because he hoped he would get something in return someday. He eventually was made Prime Minister by KIng Zhuangxiang. (Qian 161-162) I respected Lu Buwei highly and referred to him as Uncle but I never wondered if he was my father. If Sima Qian's allegations were true, then that would have made me an illegitimate ruler.
'''Contemporary Commentator'''
I think one must not forget that the Grand Historian Sima Qian wrote his records during the Han Dynasty. He essentially wrote the history of the Qin to fit the Han worldview. This alleged controversy over the birth of Qin Shihuangdi could have been entirely fabricated by the Grand Historian as an attempt to discredit the Qin Dynasty. The possibility of the First Emperor's birth being illegitimate paints the Qin Dynasty in an unfavorable light as well as tarnishes the legacy of Qin Shihuangdi. This mechanism could have been used by the Grand Historian to reduce the importance of the Qin Dynasty while at the same time promoting the superiority of the Han Dynasty. In the study of history it is important to be objective and unfortunately there seems to be a Han bias to the writings of Sima Qian.
== The State of Qin ==
My nation, Qin, was one of many states in existence at the end of the Zhou Dynasty. In 361 BC, following the advice of Shang Yang, or Lord Shang as he was widely known, my nation began to be ruled according to the tenants of Legalism. At the time I ascended to the throne, Qin was strong, peaceful and prosperous. The people were law-abiding citizens and paid taxes to the state. In 264 BC, shortly before I was born, our nation was visited by a follower of the man called Confucius. His name was Xunzi. He reported that our people "stood in deep awe" of the officials. The officials he described as "serious and sincere". Where, I ask, is the evidence of tyranny later ascribed to my state? Our people were well cared for; what other nation, at that same time, could say as much? (Ebrey 49-52,60)

=== The Teachings of Lord Shang ===
Lord Shang arrived in Qin state in 361 BC. As Chief Minister he instituted many reforms that transformed Qin into a more efficient and powerful state congruent with Legalism. He rejected the Confucian virtues of humanity and rightness saying they have no practical use in political life. Rather he advocated strengthening the power of the ruler. War was seen as a necessary means to achieve territorial expansion and to make the people strong, disciplined, and submissive. He advocated the destruction of the old feudal order replacing it instead with a strong central government headed by an absolute ruler. Shang saw the rule of law as an important tool of promoting discipline administered by an impartial bureaucracy. Severe punishments would discourage the breaking of these laws while people were generously rewarded for reporting those that did. Agriculture was the basis of the economy. Shang said that the state depended on the agriculture and war for its peace. The officials must be consistent in their conduct, if the officials are consistent then the state is well governed. Single-mindedness is something that should be strived for. The people were to live frugal and obedient lives devoted to the interests of the state in peace and war. (Bary and Bloom 191-195)
=== My Rule of Qin ===
My rule of Qin was marked by constant warfare between Qin and the other warring states. Since I was too young to rule when I ascended to the throne I entrusted the affairs of the state to my chief ministers. My chief ministers consisted of my Prime Minister Lu Buwei, his retainer Li Si; and my generals, Meng Ao, Wang Ji, and Lord Biao. In the first year of my rule, General Meng Ao crushed a revolt. The next nine years would be characterized by a struggle for territory between Qin and the other states. Generals Wang Ji and Meng Ao would die in this period. In the year 238 BC at the age of 21 I received the cap of manhood and received my sword and girdle. I was now able to rule my Kingdom on my own. (Qian 36-37)

=== Attempted Coup d'etat ===
In the same year I turned twenty-one there was a revolt in my Kingdom by a "eunuch" in my household, Lao Ai. Lao Ai was not really a eunuch. He was part of a bigger plot to instigate a revolt and overthrow me.
In the years since my father King Zhuangxiang died, my mother continued a secret relationship with my prime minister Lu Buwei. Lu Buwei realized that if he continued this relationship, he would risk the chance of a scandal. So he set out to find a replacement. He found a suitable replacement in Lao Ai. The queen dowager requested he be smuggled into her chambers. Lu Buwei suggested Lao Ai be subjected to a mock castration. If Lao Ai was seen as a eunuch, he would have closer access to the queen dowager. The queen dowager bribed an official into pretending to carry out the castration. Lao Ai and the queen dowager then began a relationship that bore two sons. Lao Ai and the queen dowager suggested that if I died, one of these sons would succeed me on the throne. Through his connection with the queen dowager, Lao Ai built up a following of ambitious men looking for government office. In the year 238 BC Lao Ai planned a revolt, he forged my seal and the seal of the queen dowager and called out district troops and prepared to move on the palace. I sent out my army and crushed his rebellion. I seized Lao Ai and his supporters and made an example of them. I beheaded his followers and I had Lao Ai torn in half by two carriages. I had his whole family killed along with his two sons. I found out Lu Buwei was involved in this plot so I had him removed from his post. He later committed suicide in shame. ( Qian 37-38, 163-165)

=== The Qin Military ===

As a result of Lord Shang's legalists policies, we, in Qin, developed an aggressive military. Scholars estimate that Qin's population was about 5 or 6 million. Of this population anywhere between 8 percent to 20 percent of the population is estimated to have served in the army. This gave me a grand army that varied anywhere from 500,000 to 1 million strong. My army was very strong and very capable. The army was capable of equipping 1 million armored infantry, 1000 chariots, and 10,000 horses. My army had access to the best weapons available. Iron swords, crossbows, chariots and the best armors. As a result of the strong central government and institutions in Qin, my army was well trained and disciplined. The strong agriculture society in Qin made sure my army was well fed and supplied. With these military capabilities I would be able to wage war effectively against the other states. Since my army was capable of a massive amount of armored infantry, they did the majority of the fighting. Light infantry was used as shock troops and were sent in first followed by the main force of armored infantry. The calvary and chariots would bring up the rear attack the enemy's flanks and charging the weakened lines. This strategy enabled my troops to overwhelm the enemy. (Kiser and Cai 521-522)

== My Campaign of Unification ==
=== Initial Campaigns ===
After the removal of Lu Buwei as prime minister, I appointed Li Si as my chief minister. Li Si urged me to take over Han to strike fear in the other states.because in doing so I would terrify the other states.With my kingdom firmly under my control, I could turn my attentions toward...pacification... of my warring neighbors. For over two hundred years they fought with each other. Countless lives were lost.

On Li Si's urging I moved on Han first. Han fell relatively quickly. My army seized the King of Han and took over all of his territory in 230 BC. The following year my army prepared to move on Zhao. By the year 228 BC my army had captured Handan and the king of Zhao and had control over Zhao territory. I traveled to Handan where I had all the enemies of my mother's family killed. In the year 226 BC my army attacked the Yan capital of Ji. My forces succeeded in capturing Ji and defeating the army of Crown Prince Dan of Yan. I had the Crown Prince beheaded for his attempt on my life. The King of Yan escaped to the region of Laiodong where he seized control and made himself king of that region. (Qian 38-41)
=== Assassination Attempt ===
The year before in 227 BC, Crown Prince Dan was fearful of the possibility of my troops moving on Yan. In desperation he sent an assassin, Jing Ke to kill me. Jing Ke planned to get close to me by posing as an envoy to the King of Yan. In order to get an audience with me he would bring me the severed head of my former general, Fan Yuqi. I had a bounty out for his head. Jing Ke convinced Fan Yuqi to kill himself so the Jing Ke could put his severed head in a box. Then he acquired the sharpest dagger he could find and coated the tip in poison. Jing Ke wrapped the dagger in a map to be presented to me. I received Jing Ke in my palace and welcomed him warmly. I was pleased by the severed head of Fan Yuqi. When I asked him to bring me the map, he unveiled it to reveal a dagger! He aimed it at my chest and I lunged back and tried to draw my sword. Qin law forbade any weapons to be carried by the people who waited on me. I could not draw my sword so I ran away from Jing Ke until my doctor managed to knock Jing Ke with his medicine bag. I finally managed to draw my sword and a slashed at Jing Ke wounding him eight times. Defeated he told me about his failure to kill me for the Crown Prince of Yan. As punishment I had Jing Ke torn limb from limb. After this incident I ordered more troops to Zhao and then ordered the commander in Zhao to attack Yan. When I found Crown Prince Dan, I had him beheaded. (Qian 172-176)
=== The Final Campaigns ===
Following the fall of the capital of Yan, my army moved on the capital of Wei, Daliang in 225 BC. My forces diverted water from the Yellow river and flooded the capital causing the walls to collapse. The king of Wei capitulated and I took over his territory. This was a largely uneventful campaign. I then conquered Chu (Jing) in 223 BC. The Chu army was crushed and the king killed. The following year I called up large amounts of troops and moved to attack the Yan region of Liaodong. I finally succeeded in capturing the king of Yan, King Xi. In 221 BC I marched my army south from Yan into Qi where I seized King Jian of Qi. With this victory I acheived unification of China and I brought the states under my rule. (Qian 41-42)

Here is the order in which the major states fell:
*Han in 230 BC
*Zhao 228 BC
*Wei 225 BC
*Chu 223 BC
*Yan 222 BC
*Qi 221 BC
(Ebrey pp40,60)
In just nine years I succeeded in ending the period of warring states. I proclaimed myself emperor and established the Qin Dynasty. From this day forth I was known as Qin Shihuangdi. The first emperor.

== Qin Shihuangdi ==
=== First Emperor ===
This is what my new name meant.
*‘First’ because I fully expected my Empire to last for 10,000 years, if not forever. This was a name each of my descendants would share. I was Shi haungdi, my son would be Ershi huangdi, his son Sanshi huangdi and so forth.
*‘August and Divine’ as I was now at least equal to a god.
Together, they meant ‘Emperor’. I was fully the equal of the mythical emperors of our past.
[[File:Qin Shihuangdi.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Qin Shihuangdi photo by Tonynetone]]
=== Naming Debate ===
Perhaps there are some of you who wonder why I am sometimes called Qin Shihuangdi and sometimes Qin Shihuang. Originally, I chose the name Shihuangdi, for the reasons I just explained. In later years, the historians felt a need to connect me with my kingdom and they added the "Qin" to the front of my name, where the family name would usually go. This made me Qin Shihuangdi. Even later, it was decided that my name should only have the same number of syllables that any average, ordinary person had- 3. So, they dropped the last syllable "di" (the one that meant "divine") and I became known as Qin Shihuang. (If your name is still known two thousand years from now, perhaps you will find it changed as well.)
=== My Rule as Emperor ===
One of the first things I did as Emperor was carry out sweeping changes in order to unify and stabilize the Empire. With the help of my prime minister Li Si and my ministers I divided the empire into 36 commanderies that answered to the central court. Each province was administered by a governor and a military commander. I abolished all feudal ranks and privileges. In an effort to protect against armed insurrection I disarmed the population and made it illegal to possess any weapon of any kind. The rich and powerful families of the empire, 120,000 in all, were moved to the capital so I could better monitor them. I made the legalist ideas of Lord Shang, Han Fei, and Li Si state philosophy. Justice for people who dared break the law was swift and fierce. Punishments were severe and often resulted in execution or forced labor on the many projects in my empire. I used forced labor to connect the many parts of the Great Wall, and to build my magnificent palace and tomb. I also improved the roads in the empire.(Ebrey 60-63)
=== The Burning of Books ===
Criticism was not tolerated in my empire. In an effort to control knowledge I had to act. The records of the past could be used to criticize myself and the government. In 213 BC I ordered any books and records of historians other than the state of Qin burned. The Classic of Documents and the Classic of Odes were to be burned as well. Anyone caught in the marketplace discussing either the Documents or the Odes would be put to death. I ordered 460 scholars put to death to eliminate any and all opposition to my rule. See also: [[Book burning in Qin Dynasty]]
=== Standardization ===
In an effort to unify my empire I standardized the weights and measures, the gauge of wagon wheels, and developed a uniform system of writing. I ordered new coins for my reign as well. They were round, with a square hole in the middle. The shape was suggestive of eternity, round which represented heaven, and a square hole which represented the world. The hole also made it easy smooth out the edges. Many coins could be stacked on a square rod and the edges filed smooth at one time.
[[File:Qin weight.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Qin standardized weight]]
In 220 BC I took a tour of inspection of my empire. In honor of my great accomplishments, I erected stone tablets carved with everything I achieved. The quote at the beginning of this page is from a tablet I erected at Mt. Langya.
If you examine the quote, you will notice a common theme- all my accomplishments brought peace and/or order to my troubled realm.
[[File:Qin tours.png|200px|thumb|left|The tours of my empire]]
Under my rule, for the first time the entire country was ruled by one powerful centralized administration. My government wielded more power than any before. In might and magnificence, I was greater than all prior governments. My people were awed, and yes, afraid of my magnificence. For the next two thousand years (more or less) my pattern of centralized control would be the government of choice for China. If the country was not ruled by descendents of my body, it was at least ruled by descendents of my style of rule, descendents of spirit. (De Bary & Bloom, pp 227)

== My Death ==
After many assassination attempts I became obsessed with reaching immortality. I became obsessed with locating the mythical land of Peng Lai. Herbs brought from this place could grant me immortality. I spent large sums of money sending magicians to locate this mythical land. I dreamed of an ocean God in the shape of a giant fish that was blocking my efforts to locate Peng Lai. I ordered all my ships to carry equipment to seize a giant fish. I myself carried a crossbow just in case I happened across this giant fish. (Qian 61-62)
I established an Empire meant to last forever. But it was not to be. I died before my work was done in 210 BC. from illness. Only eight years after my death, the Qin dynasty was no more.
=== My Tomb ===
[[File:Qin Statue.png|200px|thumb|right|Statue of Qin Shihuangdi]]
When I first ascended to the throne, I started work on my tomb at Mt. Li. After I became emperor I moved 700,000 men from all over the empire and ordered them to finish it. Replicas of palaces, scenic towers and the hundred officials were brought from around the empire to fill the tomb. Mercury was used to build imitations the hundred rivers, and the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, and the oceans and were built in a way that it seem to flow(Qian 63) I was buried with a full sized army of terra cotta warriors to protect me in the afterlife. These warriors were equipped with real weapons and real chariots. No two of these magnificent warriors was identical, they were all unique. (Ebrey 63) See also: [[ Terra Cotta Army]]
=== My Legacy ===
The Qin Dynasty was marked by aggressive rule and legalist ideals. But the institutions I created such as a centralized government, the standardization of weights and measures, and the unified writing sustem endure to this day. I reigned as Emperor for only 11 years. My "dynasty" didn't even last 10 years past my death. And yet, the land I unified still bears the name of my state. The unity '''I''' forged, the Empire '''I''' created, this has endured throughout the ages. In time the Han would fall and so too the dynasty that replaced them and the one that would replace them and so down to your day. True, my dynasty did not endure but my legacy, '''MY''' legacy remains.

== References ==
*Andrea, Alfred J. and Overfield, James H. "The Human Record: Sources of Global History", Vol 1. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994,2d. ed. pp. 97-100

*De Bary, WM. Theodore, and Irene Bloom, eds. Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume 1, From Earliest Times to 1600. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.

*Ebrey, Patricia. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

*Kiser, Edward, and Yong Kai. “War and Bureaucratization in Qin China: Exploring an Anomalous Case.” American Sociological Review, Vol. 68, No. 4, (August 2003), p. 511 – 539.

*Qian, Sima. Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty. Translated by Burton Watson. Hong Kong: Columbia University Press, 1993.

*World Heritage Site. UNESCO. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/441

== Classroom Presentations ==
[[File:Qin_Shihuangdi_Presentation_by_Emmanuel_Rivas.pptx]]

The Warring States Period

2013-04-17T07:56:20Z

Christopher W:

'''Warring States Period'''

The Warring States Period is the time period falling the Spring and Autumn period and ending with the rise of the Qin Dynasty. The Warring States Period lasted from 403 BCE to 221 BCE.

'''China Prior to Warring States Period'''

As the Zhou Dynasty slowly began to fall, lesser kingdoms began to break away and act as autonomous kingdoms. After these kingdoms broke away, they were pushed into volatile political system with each independent state looking to accumulate more power. Kingdoms would seek many different ways and philosophies to gain advantages over their rivals. This time period would see lots of social and political change that would greatly change the way China would evolve.

'''China Just Prior to Unification Under Qin Dynasty'''

“The central authority of the feudal Zhou regime had long disintegrated, and a varying number of states were engaged in perpetual struggle for predominance.”

“This struggle for hegemony came to an end only in 221 B.C., when the despotic northwestern state of Qin succeed in reuniting the Chinese under a single (though short-lived) dynasty once more” (Minford xx).

=War as a catalyst of change=

The Warring States Period gets its name, quite simply, due to the fact that it consisted of almost constant warfare. This time period would see great changes in the way war was fought.

The northern Chinese state of Jin had to wage war against non-Chinese tribes in the north. These tribes had mastered the art of cavalry warfare. Jin needed to combat this new threat and began to develop their own cavalries. Jin was the first Chinese kingdom to adopt cavalry techniques. Soon other kingdoms would adopt this newer, cheaper (than chariot warfare) and more effective strategy. After seeing the benefits that a cavalry can bring on the battlefield, kingdoms began to fight over pasturing lands and horses to build up their militaries.

Besides the effect on Chinese warfare, the move towards cavalries had a great social effect. Chariots were manned buy powerful prestigious aristocracies. And though the chariot never went completely out of style, the addition of cavalry units and massed infantry greatly diminished the chariot aristocracies power both in the military and politically.

The invention of the crossbow during this period would have an even greater effect. The crossbow allowed simple farmers to become effective soldiers with very little training. The crossbow enabled soldiers to shoot further and more accurate than ever before. This addition was very successful and militaries saw their numbers swell to the hundreds of thousands and in some cases millions. The ability to mass large numbers of soldiers was a great advantage in warfare and kingdoms sought to grow their populations and attract others.

During this time period kingdoms invested in irrigation and agriculture in order to increase their populations. Different kingdoms also sought to attract peasants away from their rival kingdoms by offering immigrants land and by granting populations certain rights. During this time period there was a gradual decline in serfdom eventually ending all serfdom under the Qin Dynasty.

Rulers started to look on trade more favorably as a way to gain economic advantages. They began to cast coins to take the place of larger bolts of silk. Economies were able to greatly expand thanks to Iron. Iron was used greatly in weapons and farming. By the end of the Warring States Period there were great smelting projects that employed up to 200 workers.

=Effects on Government=

The Warring states had amassed large militaries consisting of mass infantry, chariots and cavalry. Complex logistical systems needed to be developed and maintained by efficient government bureaucracies in order to train, supply and control theses massive units. In order to maintain control over these armies and their lands, rulers were forced to change the way they governed. Rulers would rely more and more on their own officials from the central government and send them out to govern peripheral territories. This new style of governance strengthened the power of the central government while Lessing the influence of hereditary lesser lords throughout the kingdom. It also allowed for more upward movement among lesser aristocracy members.

Kings could choose advisors from a large, competitive pool of qualified men. The competition among the states also insured that these talented men could be more discerning with whom they chose to advise.

As lesser states were concerned during this period, their nobles would be forced to seek new employment. These educated men would be quickly lured to work as advisors for neighboring kingdoms. These men would make plans and proposals and present them to the king on a variety of issues. These proposals would be debated, which lead to great advancements in the art of oratory skills, logic, strategy and science. Because of this, this period in time is also referred to as the One Hundred Schools of Thought. The Warring States Period would produce some of China’s most popular and revered scholars.

=Ideologies in the Warring States Period/ One Hundred Schools of Thought =
*See [[Confucianism]]
*See [[Moism]]
*See [[Taoism]]
*See [[Legalism]]

=Great Philosophers during the Warring States Period=
*See [[Confucius]]
*See [[Mozi]]
*See [[Mencius]]
*See [[Han Fei Tzu]]
*See Xun Zi
*See Lao Zi
*See Zhuang Zi
*See Qu Yuan
*See Lao Tze
*See Sun Tzu

=Sources=

*Bary, Theodore & Irene Bloom. Sources of Chinese Tradition From the Earliest Times to 1600. Columbia University Press, New York, NY. 1999.

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Chinese Civilization, a Sourcebook. The Free Press, New York, NY. 1981.

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Illustrated History China, Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. 1996, 2010.

*Gernet (1996) A History of Chinese Civilisation, Cambridge university press, p. 59

*Sun Tzu. The Art of War. Edited and Translated by John Minford. Penguin Group, New York, NY. 2003.

*http://www.garyleetodd.com/chinese-museums-online/shaanxi-provincial-museum-xian/

The Warring States Period

2013-04-17T07:54:15Z

Christopher W:

'''Warring States Period'''

The Warring States Period is the time period falling the Spring and Autumn period and ending with the rise of the Qin Dynasty. The Warring States Period lasted from 403 BCE to 221 BCE.

'''China Prior to Warring States Period'''

As the Zhou Dynasty slowly began to fall, lesser kingdoms began to break away and act as autonomous kingdoms. After these kingdoms broke away, they were pushed into volatile political system with each independent state looking to accumulate more power. Kingdoms would seek many different ways and philosophies to gain advantages over their rivals. This time period would see lots of social and political change that would greatly change the way China would evolve.

'''China Just Prior to Unification Under Qin Dynasty'''

“The central authority of the feudal Zhou regime had long disintegrated, and a varying number of states were engaged in perpetual struggle for predominance.”

“This struggle for hegemony came to an end only in 221 B.C., when the despotic northwestern state of Qin succeed in reuniting the Chinese under a single (though short-lived) dynasty once more” (Minford xx).

=War as a catalyst of change=

The Warring States Period gets its name, quite simply, due to the fact that it consisted of almost constant warfare. This time period would see great changes in the way war was fought.

The northern Chinese state of Jin had to wage war against non-Chinese tribes in the north. These tribes had mastered the art of cavalry warfare. Jin needed to combat this new threat and began to develop their own cavalries. Jin was the first Chinese kingdom to adopt cavalry techniques. Soon other kingdoms would adopt this newer, cheaper (than chariot warfare) and more effective strategy. After seeing the benefits that a cavalry can bring on the battlefield, kingdoms began to fight over pasturing lands and horses to build up their militaries.

Besides the effect on Chinese warfare, the move towards cavalries had a great social effect. Chariots were manned buy powerful prestigious aristocracies. And though the chariot never went completely out of style, the addition of cavalry units and massed infantry greatly diminished the chariot aristocracies power both in the military and politically.

The invention of the crossbow during this period would have an even greater effect. The crossbow allowed simple farmers to become effective soldiers with very little training. The crossbow enabled soldiers to shoot further and more accurate than ever before. This addition was very successful and militaries saw their numbers swell to the hundreds of thousands and in some cases millions. The ability to mass large numbers of soldiers was a great advantage in warfare and kingdoms sought out was to grow their populations and attract others.

During this time period kingdoms invested in irrigation and agriculture in order to increase their populations. Different kingdoms also sought to attract peasants away from their rival kingdoms by offering immigrants land and by granting populations certain rights. During this time period there was a gradual decline in serfdom eventually ending all serfdom under the Qin Dynasty.

Rulers started to look on trade more favorably as a way to gain economic advantages. They began to cast coins to take the place of larger bolts of silk. Economies were able to greatly expand thanks to Iron. Iron was used greatly in weapons and farming. By the end of the Warring States Period there were great smelting projects that employed up to 200 workers.

=Effects on Government=

The Warring states had amassed large militaries consisting of mass infantry, chariots and cavalry. Complex logistical systems needed to be developed and maintained by efficient government bureaucracies in order to train, supply and control theses massive units. In order to maintain control over these armies and their lands, rulers were forced to change the way they governed. Rulers would rely more and more on their own officials from the central government and send them out to govern peripheral territories. This new style of governance strengthened the power of the central government while Lessing the influence of hereditary lesser lords throughout the kingdom. It also allowed for more upward movement among lesser aristocracy members.

Kings could choose advisors from a large, competitive pool of qualified men. The competition among the states also insured that these talented men could be more discerning with whom they chose to advise.

As lesser states were concerned during this period, their nobles would be forced to seek new employment. These educated men would be quickly lured to work as advisors for neighboring kingdoms. These men would make plans and proposals and present them to the king on a variety of issues. These proposals would be debated, which lead to great advancements in the art of oratory skills, logic, strategy and science. Because of this, this period in time is also referred to as the One Hundred Schools of Thought. The Warring States Period would produce some of China’s most popular and revered scholars.

=Ideologies in the Warring States Period/ One Hundred Schools of Thought =
*See [[Confucianism]]
*See [[Moism]]
*See [[Taoism]]
*See [[Legalism]]

=Great Philosophers during the Warring States Period=
*See [[Confucius]]
*See [[Mozi]]
*See [[Mencius]]
*See [[Han Fei Tzu]]
*See Xun Zi
*See Lao Zi
*See Zhuang Zi
*See Qu Yuan
*See Lao Tze
*See Sun Tzu

=Sources=

*Bary, Theodore & Irene Bloom. Sources of Chinese Tradition From the Earliest Times to 1600. Columbia University Press, New York, NY. 1999.

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Chinese Civilization, a Sourcebook. The Free Press, New York, NY. 1981.

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Illustrated History China, Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. 1996, 2010.

*Gernet (1996) A History of Chinese Civilisation, Cambridge university press, p. 59

*Sun Tzu. The Art of War. Edited and Translated by John Minford. Penguin Group, New York, NY. 2003.

*http://www.garyleetodd.com/chinese-museums-online/shaanxi-provincial-museum-xian/

Mencius

2013-04-17T07:51:52Z

Christopher W:

Meng Ke or Mencius was born in the Zou state in about 372 BCE, nearly a century after Confucius. In several respects I lived a life similar to that of Confucius. Zou and Lu (the state of Confucius’ origin) were adjacent states. I lost my father when I was only three years old. My mother moved our home several times and finally settled near a school, so that I would have the right kind of environmental influence and encouragment to help me persevere in my studies.

Mencius is regarded as a major philosopher, by the neo-Confucians of the Song dynasty (960–1279). He is revered among the Chinese people as the cofounder of Confucianism, second only to Confucius himself, because his teachings reached many more people than Confucius was able to reach. His teachings were like those of Confucius and were considered to be reinforcement of the teachings and principals he taught, especially on the "right principals of government."(Ebery)

As a young scholar my mentor was a pupil of Zisi, who was himself the grandson of Confucius. Thus, the continuity of the Confucian orthodoxy in all its purity was assured (Ebrey). In time, I became a teacher and for a brief period served as an official in the state of Qi. Mencius spent much time traveling, offering advice and counsel to the various princes on government human-heartedness, or humane government. Because the times were chaotic, and the contending princes were not interested in humane government, but in power, I found little sucess. I had many discussions with the various leaders of these states. Some of them considered my teachings as being very valid, but because of the tense situation of the wars and interference by rival advisors, they seldom implemented my teachings into their governments. My teachings and discussions with the kings of the warring states are recorded in the book ''Mencious'' which was written by my pupils after my death.

[[File:Temple of Mencius - Jin Dynasty bell - P1050871.JPG]]

The "Book of Mencius" consists of seven parts or books, and treaties of the proper regulation of human conduct from the point of view of society and the state. Religion as a motive of right conduct seems to have concerned him much less than it did Confucius. One of his recorded sayings runs: "The people are of the highest importance; the gods come second; the sovereign is of lesser weight." His work abounds in sententious utterances. If we may trust the records, he knew how to speak plainly and strongly. To Prince Hui, whom he found living in careless luxury, while his people were perishing for lack of economic reforms, he said: "In your kitchen there is fat meat, and in your stables there are sleek horses, while famine sits upon the faces of your people, and men die of hunger in the fields. This is to be a beast and prey on your fellow men." Mencius was a staunch champion of the Confucian principle that human nature tends to what is morally good, and only runs to evil by reason of the perverse influences of external enviroment. His treatise is one of the most noteworthy attempts to teach morality independently of religion. The "Book of Mencius" is generally accepted as genuine, though the evidence of its Mencian authorship is of a kind that would not be judged sufficient if it fell within the scope of modern historic criticism. In a Chinese history dating from 100 B.C., a short account of Mencius is given, in which he is declared to be the author of the work in seven books that bears his name. There are extant portions of literary works composed as early as 186-178 B.C., containing quotations from the "Book of Mencius". There remains still, somewhat more than a century to bridge over, but the reputation for accuracy of the Chinese annals is taken as a warrant that the work goes back to the days of Mencius and was issued from his pen.(www.newadvent.org)

==The Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE) was founded on the feudalistic principle of a sociopolitical hierarchy, with clearly defined privileges and responsibilities between those of high and low status. Ambition and intrigue resulted in deterioration of the feudalistic system and bringing on a condition of political and moral chaos. This trend continued to worsen at an accelerating rate, and is known in Chinese history as the period of Warring States (475–221 BCE). This was when larger feudal states warred on and defeated smaller states (De Bary and Bloom). War at that time was very brutal and pitted armies in hand to hand combat. Farmers were forced to fight alongside the regular army with crossbows and even at times with hies from their fields. Families were torn apart in order to have enough fighters in the battles to face the enemy. I preached to the princes on virtuous personal conduct and humane government but it all fell on deaf ears. The kings were only interested in winning the war against the enemy states at all costs, so they could remain in power themselves.

My beliefs were that, the ruler was to provide for the welfare of the people in two respects: material conditions for their livelihood and moral and educational guidance for their edification; this to attain economic sufficiency for the common people. Including light taxes, conservation of natural resources, welfare measures for the old and disadvantaged, and more equal sharing of wealth, believing that “only when the people had a steady livelihood would they have a steady heart.” "Why must the king speak of profit? There are humaneness and rightness, that is all. If the King says 'How can I profit my state?' the officers will say 'How can I profit my house?' and the gentleman and the common people will say, 'How can I profit my person?' Those above and those below will be competing with one another for profit, and the state will be imperiled. One who would murder the ruler of a state with ten thousand chariots would have to be from a house of a thousand chariots; one who would murder the ruler of a state of a thousand chariots would have to be from a house of a hundred chariots. A share of a thousand out of ten thousand or a hundred out of a thousand is hardly negligible; yet when rightness is subordinated to profit the urge to lay claim to more becomes irresistible. It has never happened that one given to humaneness abandons his parents, or that one given to rightness subordinates the interests of his lord. The king should speak of humaneness and rightness. Why is it necessary to speak of profit?" (De Bary and Bloom)

After seeing King Xiang of Liang, Mencius said to someone, "When I saw him from a distance he did not look like a ruler, and when I got closer, I saw nothing to command respect. But he asked 'How can the realm be settled?' I answered, 'It can be settled through unity.' 'Who can unify it?' he asked. I answered, 'Someone not fond of killing people.' 'Who could give it to him?' I answered 'Everyone in the world will give it to him. Your Majesty knows what rice plants are? If there is a drought in the seventh and eighth months, the plants wither, but if moisture collects in the sky and forms clouds and rain falls in torrents, plants suddenly revive. This is the way it is; no one can stop the process. In the world today there are no rulers disinclined toward killing. If there were a ruler who did not like to kill people, everyone in the world would crane their necks to catch sight of him. This is really true. The people would flow toward him the way water flows down. No one would be able to repress them.' "

King Xuan of Qi asked, "Is it true that King Wen's park was seventy li square'," Mencius answered, "That is what the records say." The King said, "Isn't that large?" Mencius responded, 'The people considered it small." "Why then do the people consider my park large when it is forty li square?" "In the forty square li of King Wen's park, people could collect firewood and catch birds and rabbits. Since he shared it with the people, isn't it fitting that they considered it small? When I arrived at the border, I asked about the main rules of the state before daring to enter. I learned that there was a forty-li park within the outskirts of the capital where killing a deer was punished like killing a person. Thus these forty li are a trap in the center of the state. Isn't it appropriate that the people consider it too large?" (Ebrey)--[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] ([[User talk:Bill P|talk]]) 22:23, 12 April 2013 (CEST)

==Always I tried to remind the princes of the responsibility that came to them with the mandate of Heaven to govern for the good of the people. I declared: “The people are the most important element in a nation; the spirits of the land and grain come next; the sovereign counts for the least.” I also quoted for all to hear from the Shujing (“Classic of History”), one of the Five Classics of Confucianism, the saying “Heaven sees as the people see; Heaven hears as the people hear.” I became a champion of the common people and an advocate of democratic principles in government. I taught King Hui of Liang: "The king's dogs and pigs eat food intended for human biengs, and he does not know enough to prohibit this. On the roads there are people dying of starvation, and he does not know enough to distribute food. People die, and he says 'it was not I, it was the year.' How is this different from killing a person by stabbibg him and then saying ' It was not I, it was the weapon'? When the king ceases to place the blame on the year, then the people of the world will come to him."(De Bary and Bloom).[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] ([[User talk:Bill P|talk]]) 17:42, 27 February 2013 (CET)

I have said, ''Everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others. The great kings of the past had this sort of sensitive heart and thus adopted compassionate policies. Bringing order to the realm is as easy as moving an object in your palm when you have a sensitive heart and put into practice compassionate policies Let me give an example of what I mean w hen I say everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others Anyone today who suddenly saw a baby about to fall into a well would feel alarmed and concerned. It would not be because he wanted to improve his relations with the child's parents, nor because he wanted a good reputation among his friends and neighbors, nor because he disliked hearing the child cry. From this it follows that anyone who lacks feelings of commiseration, shame, and courtesy or a sense of right and wrong is not a human being. From the feeling of commiseration benevolence grows; from th e feeling of shame righteousness grows; from the feeling of courtesy ritual grows; from a sense of right and wrong wisdom grows. People have these four germs, just as they have four limbs For someone with these four potentials to claim incompetence is to cripple himself; to say his ruler is incapable of them is to cripple his ruler Those who know how to develop the four potentials within themselves will take off like a fire or burst forth like a spring. Those who can fully develop them can protect the entire land while those unable to develop them cannot even take care of their parents

Gaozi said, ' 'Human nature is like whirling water When an outlet is opened to the east, it flows east; when an outlet is opened to the west, it flows west Human nature is no more inclined to good or ba t an water is inc inc to east or west'. Mencius responed, Water, it is true is not inclined to either east or west, but does it have no preference for high or low? Goodness is to human nature like flowing downward to water. There are no people who are not good and no water that does not flow down . Still water if splashed can go higher than your head; if forced, it can be brought up a hill This isn't the nature of water; it is the specific circumstances. Although people can be made to be bad, their natures are not changed. (Ebrey)--[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] ([[User talk:Bill P|talk]]) 22:23, 12 April 2013 (CEST)

I further identified the four basic qualities of the heart-mind (sympathy, shame, deference, judgment) not only as distinguishing characteristics of human beings – what makes the human being really human – but also as the “sprouts” (duan) of the four cardinal virtues:

A heart-mind that sympathizes is the sprout of co-humanity [ren]; a heart-mind that is aware of shame is the sprout of rightness [yi]; a heart-mind that defers to others is the sprout of ritual propriety [li]; a heart-mind that approves and condemns is the sprout of wisdom [zhi]…. If anyone having the four sprouts within himself knows how to develop them to the full, it is like fire catching alight, or a spring as it first bursts through. If able to develop them, he is able to protect the entire world; if unable, he is unable to serve even his parents.

Now the complexity of Mencius’ seemingly simplistic position becomes clearer. What makes us human is our feelings of commiseration for others’ suffering; what makes us virtuous – or, in Confucian parlance, junzi – is our development of this inner potential. To paraphrase Irene Bloom on this point, there is no sharp conflict between “nature” and “nurture” in Mencius; biology and culture are co-dependent upon one another in the development of the virtues. If our sprouts are left untended, we can be no more than merely human – feeling sorrow at the suffering of another, but unable or unwilling to do anything about it. If we tend our sprouts assiduously — through education in the classical texts, formation by ritual propriety, fulfillment of social norms, etc. – we can not only avert the suffering of a few children in some wells, but also bring about peace and justice in the entire world.(iep.edu)

My philosophic ideas might be regarded as complimenting the teachings of Confucius. Confucius taught the concept of ren, love or human-heartedness, as the basic virtue of manhood. The original goodness of human nature (xing) was the basis of his system. That the four beginnings (siduan)—the feeling of commiseration, the feeling of shame, the feeling of courtesy, and the feeling of right and wrong—are all inborn in man was a self-evident truth; and the “four beginnings,” when properly cultivated, will develop into the four cardinal virtues of ren, righteousness (yi), decorum (li), and wisdom (zhi). This doctrine of the goodness of human nature has become an enduring topic for debate among the Chinese thinkers throughout the ages.(Chang and Owen).

I believed that through the training of the heart and mind in the correct principals, all people can become like the great sage-kings Yao and Shun, the legendary heroes of the archaic past. I taught the king that people need to be able to have sufficient to serve themselves and their parents, then they will be able to observe the rites. "At present, the regulation of the people's livelihood is such that, above, they do not have enough to serve their parents, and below, they do not have enough to support wives and children. Even in years of prosperity their lives are bitter, while in years of dearth they are unable to escape starvation. Under these circumstances they only try to save themselves from death, fearful that they will not suceed. How could they spare the time for the practice of rites and rightness?" (De Bary and Bloom).

To sum up, both biology and culture are important for Mencian self-cultivation, and so is Tian. “By fully developing one’s heart-mind, one knows one’s nature, and by knowing one’s nature, one knows Heaven.” One cannot help but begin with “a heart-mind that feels for others,” but the journey toward full humanity is hardly complete without having taken any steps beyond one’s birth. Guided by the examples of ancient sages and the ritual forms and texts they have left behind, one starts to develop one’s heart-mind further by nurturing its qi through habitually doing what is right, cultivating its “sprouts” into virtues, and bringing oneself up and out from the merely human to that which Tian intends for one, which is to become a sage. Nature is crucial, but so is nurture. Mencius’ model of moral psychology is both a “discovery” model (human nature is good) and a “development” model (human nature can be made even better).--[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] ([[User talk:Bill P|talk]]) 22:23, 12 April 2013 (CEST)

In my teachings I said, ''Everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others. The great kings of the past had this sort of sensitive heart and thus adopted compassionate policies. Bringing order to the realm is as easy as moving an object in your palm when you have a sensitive heart and put into practice compassionate policies Let me give an example of what I mean w hen I say everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others Anyone today who suddenly saw a baby about to fall into a well would feel alarmed and concerned. It would not be because he wanted to improve his relations with the child's parents, nor because he wanted a good reputation among his friends and neighbors, nor because he disliked hearing the child cry. From this it follows that anyone who lacks feelings of commiseration, shame, and courtesy or a sense of right and wrong is not a human being. From the feeling of commiseration benevolence grows; from th e feeling of shame righteousness grows; from the feeling of courtesy ritual grows; from a sense of right and wrong wisdom grows. People have these four germs, just as they have four limbs For someone with these four potentials to claim incompetence is to cripple himself; to say his ruler is incapable of them is to cripple his ruler Those who know ho~ to develop the four potentials within themselves will take off like a fire or burst forth like a spring. Those who can fully develop them can protect the entire land while those unable to develop them cannot even take care of their parents.
(Patricia Ebrey)

"Gaozi said,'Human nature is like whirling water When an outlet is opened to the east, it flows east; when an outlet is opened to the west, it flows west Human nature is no more inclined to good or bad than water is inclined to east or west'. Mencius responded, Water, it is true is not inclined to either east or west, but does it have no preference for high or low? Goodness is to human nature like flowing downward to water. There are no people who are not good and no water that does not flow down . Still water if splashed can go higher than your head; if forced, it can be brought up a hill This isn't the nature of water; it is the specific circumstances. Although people can be made to be bad, their natures are not changed." (De Bary and Bloom).

Mencius taught the rulers of the warring states that if they had the needs of the people foremost in mind, the needs of the kingdom would follow suit because the two were inseparable from each other. He said "Ask what is best for the people not what is profitable for the kingdom. If the king looks for profit, the minister will look for profit, the general will look for profit, the farmer will look for profit, and none will be happy. If the King looks for what is best for the people so will the minister and the general and the farmer and the people will have what they need and all will be happy." This teaches that in greed no one prospers and everyone suffers, but when all look after each other, everyone can prosper and all can be in a happy state. He urged the kings to work on expanding their "Qi" which is a mental and spiritual state of being in which one feels the energy that comes from doing the right thing for the right reason. This sympathetic responsiveness towards others would become one of the most important contributions to the later Chinese philosophy. "Heaven in giving birth to humankind, created for each thing its own rule. The people's common disposition is to love this admirable virtue." (Ebrey)--[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] 16:09, 15 February 2013 (UTC)

In the end,I am committed to a type of benevolent dictatorship, which puts moral value before pragmatic value and in this way seeks to benefit both ruler and subjects. The sage-kings of antiquity are a model, but one cannot simply adopt their customs and institutions and expect to govern effectively. Instead, one must emulate the sage-kings both in terms of outer structures (good laws, wise policies, correct rituals) and in terms of inner motivations (placing ren and yi first). Like Confucius, Mencius places an enormous amount of confidence in the capacity of the ordinary person to respond to an extraordinary ruler, so as to put the world in order. It is necessary for everyone to remember his place and everyone else's to remember their places so all can enjoy life and become better citizens.

==References==
*Patricia Ebrey, Chinese Civilization : A Sourcebook, 2d ed. (New York: Free Press, 1993), pp. 22-24
*Chang, Kang-i Sun, and Stephen Owen. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2010. Print.
*De Bary, Theodore and Irene Bloom. Sources of Chinese Tradition 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999
*newadvent.org

Weblinks
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius
*http://www.iep.utm.edu/mencius/
*http://www.newadvent.org

== Classroom Presentations ==
*Powerpoint file by Olivia [[Media:Mencius.pptx]]
*Powerpoint file by Bill P. [[Media:Mencius.pptx]]

Mencius

2013-04-17T07:37:00Z

Christopher W:

Meng Ke or Mencius was born in the Zou state in about 372 BCE, nearly a century after Confucius. In several respects I lived a life similar to that of Confucius. Zou and Lu (the state of Confucius’ origin) were adjacent states. I lost his father when I was only three years old. My mother moved Our home several times and finally settling near a school, so that I would have the right kind of environmental influence and encouraging Mencius to persevere in my studies.

Mencius is regarded as a major philosopher, by the neo-Confucians of the Song dynasty (960–1279). He is revered among the Chinese people as the cofounder of Confucianism, second only to Confucius himself, because his teachings reached many more people than Confucius was able to reach. His teachings were like those of Confucius and were considered to be reinforcement of the teachings and principals he taught, especially on the "right principals of government."(Ebery)

As a young scholar my mentor was a pupil of Zisi, who was himself the grandson of Confucius. Thus, the continuity of the Confucian orthodoxy in all its purity was assured (Ebrey). In time, I became a teacher and for a brief period served as an official in the state of Qi. Mencius spent much time traveling, offering advice and counsel to the various princes on government human-heartedness, or humane government. Because the times were chaotic, and the contending princes were not interested in humane government but in power, I found little sucess. I had many discussions with the various leaders of these states. Some of them considered my teachings as being very valid, but because of the tense situation of the wars and interference by rival advisors, they seldom implemented my teachings into their governments. My teachings and discussions with the kings of the warring states are recorded in the book ''Mencious'' which was written by my pupils after my death.

[[File:Temple of Mencius - Jin Dynasty bell - P1050871.JPG]]

The "Book of Mencius" consists of seven parts or books, and treats of the proper regulation of human conduct from the point of view of society and the state. Religion as a motive of right conduct seems to have concerned him much less than it did Confucius. He is interested in human conduct only in so far as it leads to the highest common weal. One of his recorded sayings runs: "The people are of the highest importance; the gods come second; the sovereign is of lesser weight." His work abounds in sententious utterances. If we may trust the records, he knew how to speak plainly and strongly. To Prince Hui, whom he found living in careless luxury, while his people were perishing for lack of economic reforms, he said: "In your kitchen there is fat meat, and in your stables there are sleek horses, while famine sits upon the faces of your people, and men die of hunger in the fields. This is to be a beast and prey on your fellow men." Mencius was a staunch champion of the Confucian principle that human nature tends to what is morally good, and only runs to evil by reason of the perverse influences of external enviroment. His treatise is one of the most noteworthy attempts to teach morality independently of religion. The "Book of Mencius" is generally accepted as genuine, though the evidence of its Mencian authorship is of a kind that would not be judged sufficient if it fell within the scope of modern historic criticism. In a Chinese history dating from 100 B.C., a short account of Mencius is given, in which he is declared to be the author of the work in seven books that bears his name. There are extant portions of literary works composed as early as 186-178 B.C., containing quotations from the "Book of Mencius". There remains still, somewhat more than a century to bridge over, but the reputation for accuracy of the Chinese annals is taken as a warrant that the work goes back to the days of Mencius and issued from his pen.(www.newadvent.org)

==The Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE) was founded on the feudalistic principle of a sociopolitical hierarchy, with clearly defined privileges and responsibilities between those of high and low status. Ambition and intrigue resulted in deterioration of the feudalistic system and bringing on a condition of political and moral chaos. This trend continued to worsen at an accelerating rate, and is known in Chinese history as the period of Warring States (475–221 BCE). This was when larger feudal states warred on and defeated smaller states (De Bary and Bloom). War at that time was very brutal and pitted armies in hand to hand combat. Farmers were forced to fight alongside the regular army with crossbows and even at times with hies from their fields. Families were torn apart in order to have enough fighters in the battles to face the enemy. I preached to the princes on virtuous personal conduct and humane government but it all fell on deaf ears. The kings were only interested in winning the war against the enemy states at all costs, so they could remain in power themselves.

My beliefs were that, the ruler was to provide for the welfare of the people in two respects: material conditions for their livelihood and moral and educational guidance for their edification; this to attain economic sufficiency for the common people. Including light taxes, conservation of natural resources, welfare measures for the old and disadvantaged, and more equal sharing of wealth, believing that “only when the people had a steady livelihood would they have a steady heart.” "Why must the king speak of profit? There are humaneness and rightness, that is all. If the King says 'How can I profit my state?' the officers will say 'How can I profit my house?' and the gentleman and the common people will say, 'How can I profit my person?' Those above and those below will be competing with one another for profit, and the state will be imperiled. One who would murder the ruler of a state with ten thousand chariots would have to be from a house of a thousand chariots; one who would murder the ruler of a state of a thousand chariots would have to be from a house of a hundred chariots. A share of a thousand out of ten thousand or a hundred out of a thousand is hardly negligible; yet when rightness is subordinated to profit the urge to lay claim to more becomes irresistible. It has never happened that one given to humaneness abandons his parents, or that one given to rightness subordinates the interests of his lord. The king should speak of humaneness and rightness. Why is it necessary to speak of profit?" (De Bary and Bloom)

After seeing King Xiang of Liang, Mencius to someone, "When I saw him from a distance he did not look like a ruler, and when I got closer, I saw nothing to command respect. But he asked 'How can the realm be settled?' I answered, 'It can be settled through unity.' 'Who can unify it?' he asked. I answered, 'Someone not fond of killing people.' 'Who could give it to him?' I answered 'Everyone in the world will give it to him. Your .Majesty knows what rice plants are? If therere is a drought in the seventh and eighth months, the plants wither, but if moisture collects in the sky and forms clouds and rain falls in torrents, plants suddenly revive. This is the way it is; no one can stop the process. In the world today there are no rulers disinclined toward killing. If there were a ruler who did not like to kill people, everyone in the world would crane their necks to catch sight of him. This is really true. The people would flow toward him the way water flows down. No one would be able to repress them.' "

King Xuan of Qi asked, "Is it true that King Wen's park was seventy li square'," Mencius answered, "That is what the records say." The King said, "Isn't that large?" Mencius responded, 'The people considered it small." "Why then do the people consider my park large when it is forty li square?" "In the forty square li of King Wen's park, people could collect firewood and catch birds and rabbits. Since he shared it with the people, isn't it fitting that they considered it small? When I arrived at the border, I asked about the main rules of the state before daring to enter. I learned that there was a forty-li park within the outskirts of the capital where killing a deer was punished like killing a person. Thus these forty li are a trap in the center of the state. Isn't it appropriate that the people consider it too large?" (Ebrey)--[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] ([[User talk:Bill P|talk]]) 22:23, 12 April 2013 (CEST)

==Always I tried to remind the princes of the responsibility that came to them with the mandate of Heaven to govern for the good of the people. I declared: “The people are the most important element in a nation; the spirits of the land and grain come next; the sovereign counts for the least.” I also quoted for all to hear from the Shujing (“Classic of History”), one of the Five Classics of Confucianism, the saying “Heaven sees as the people see; Heaven hears as the people hear.” I became a champion of the common people and an advocate of democratic principles in government. I taught King Hui of Liang: "The king's dogss and pigs eat food intended for human biengs, and he does not know enough to prohibit this. On the roads there are people dying of starvation, and he does not know enough to distribute food. People die, and he says 'it was not I, it was the year.' How is this different from killing a person by stabbibg him and then saying ' It was not I, it was the weapon'? When the king ceases to place the blame on the year, then the people of the world will come to him."(De Bary and Bloom).[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] ([[User talk:Bill P|talk]]) 17:42, 27 February 2013 (CET)

I have said, ''Everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others. The great kings of the past had this sort of sensitive heart and thus adopted compassionate policies. Bringing order to the realm is as easy as moving an object in your palm when you have a sensitive heart and put into practice compassionate policies Let me give an example of what I mean w hen I say everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others Anyone today who suddenly saw a baby about to fall into a well would feel alarmed and concerned. It would not be because he wanted to improve his relations with the child's parents, nor because he wanted a good reputation among his friends and neighbors, nor because he disliked hearing the child cry. From this it follows that anyone who lacks feelings of commiseration, shame, and courtesy or a sense of right and wrong is not a human being. From the feeling of commiseration benevolence grows; from th e feeling of shame righteousness grows; from the feeling of courtesy ritual grows; from a sense of right and wrong wisdom grows. People have these four germs, just as they have four limbs For someone with these four potentials to claim incompetence is to cripple himself; to say his ruler is incapable of them is to cripple his ruler Those who know ho~ to develop the four potentials within themselves will take off like a fire or burst forth like a spring. Those who can fully develop them can protect the entire land while those unable to develop them cannot even take care of their parents

Gaozi said, ' 'Human nature is like whirling water When an outlet is opened to the east, it flows east; when an outlet is opened to the west, it flows west Human nature is no more inclined to good or ba t an water is inc inc to east or west'. Mencius responed, Water, it is true is not inclined to either east or west, but does it have no preference for high or low? Goodness is to human nature like flowing downward to water. There are no people who are not good and no water that does not flow down . Still water if splashed can go higher than your head; if forced, it can be brought up a hill This isn't the nature of water; it is the specific circumstances. Although people can be made to be bad, their natures are not changed. (Ebrey)--[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] ([[User talk:Bill P|talk]]) 22:23, 12 April 2013 (CEST)

I further and identified the four basic qualities of the heart-mind (sympathy, shame, deference, judgment) not only as distinguishing characteristics of human beings – what makes the human being qua human being really human – but also as the “sprouts” (duan) of the four cardinal virtues:

A heart-mind that sympathizes is the sprout of co-humanity [ren]; a heart-mind that is aware of shame is the sprout of rightness [yi]; a heart-mind that defers to others is the sprout of ritual propriety [li]; a heart-mind that approves and condemns is the sprout of wisdom [zhi]…. If anyone having the four sprouts within himself knows how to develop them to the full, it is like fire catching alight, or a spring as it first bursts through. If able to develop them, he is able to protect the entire world; if unable, he is unable to serve even his parents.

Now the complexity of Mencius’ seemingly simplistic position becomes clearer. What makes us human is our feelings of commiseration for others’ suffering; what makes us virtuous – or, in Confucian parlance, junzi – is our development of this inner potential. To paraphrase Irene Bloom on this point, there is no sharp conflict between “nature” and “nurture” in Mencius; biology and culture are co-dependent upon one another in the development of the virtues. If our sprouts are left untended, we can be no more than merely human – feeling sorrow at the suffering of another, but unable or unwilling to do anything about it. If we tend our sprouts assiduously — through education in the classical texts, formation by ritual propriety, fulfillment of social norms, etc. – we can not only avert the suffering of a few children in some wells, but also bring about peace and justice in the entire world.(iep.edu)

My philosophic ideas might be regarded as complimenting the teachings of Confucius. Confucius taught the concept of ren, love or human-heartedness, as the basic virtue of manhood. The original goodness of human nature (xing) was the basis of his system. That the four beginnings (siduan)—the feeling of commiseration, the feeling of shame, the feeling of courtesy, and the feeling of right and wrong—are all inborn in man was a self-evident truth; and the “four beginnings,” when properly cultivated, will develop into the four cardinal virtues of ren, righteousness (yi), decorum (li), and wisdom (zhi). This doctrine of the goodness of human nature has become an enduring topic for debate among the Chinese thinkers throughout the ages.(Chang and Owen).

I believed that through the training of the heart and mind in the correct principals, all people can become like the great sage-kings Yao and Shun, the legendary heroes of the archaic past. I taught the king that people need to be able to have sufficient to serve themselves and their parents, then they will be able to observe the rites. "At present, the regulation of the people's livelihood is such that, above, they do not have enough to serve their parents, and below, they do not have enough to support wives and children. Even in years of prosperity their lives are bitter, while in years of dearth they are unable to escape starvation. Under these circumstances they only try to save themselves from death, fearful that they will not suceed. How could they spare the time for the practice of rites and rightness?" (De Bary and Bloom).

To sum up, both biology and culture are important for Mencian self-cultivation, and so is Tian. “By fully developing one’s heart-mind, one knows one’s nature, and by knowing one’s nature, one knows Heaven.” One cannot help but begin with “a heart-mind that feels for others,” but the journey toward full humanity is hardly complete without having taken any steps beyond one’s birth. Guided by the examples of ancient sages and the ritual forms and texts they have left behind, one starts to develop one’s heart-mind further by nurturing its qi through habitually doing what is right, cultivating its “sprouts” into virtues, and bringing oneself up and out from the merely human to that which Tian intends for one, which is to become a sage. Nature is crucial, but so is nurture. Mencius’ model of moral psychology is both a “discovery” model (human nature is good) and a “development” model (human nature can be made even better).--[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] ([[User talk:Bill P|talk]]) 22:23, 12 April 2013 (CEST)

In my teachings I said, ''Everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others. The great kings of the past had this sort of sensitive heart and thus adopted compassionate policies. Bringing order to the realm is as easy as moving an object in your palm when you have a sensitive heart and put into practice compassionate policies Let me give an example of what I mean w hen I say everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others Anyone today who suddenly saw a baby about to fall into a well would feel alarmed and concerned. It would not be because he wanted to improve his relations with the child's parents, nor because he wanted a good reputation among his friends and neighbors, nor because he disliked hearing the child cry. From this it follows that anyone who lacks feelings of commiseration, shame, and courtesy or a sense of right and wrong is not a human being. From the feeling of commiseration benevolence grows; from th e feeling of shame righteousness grows; from the feeling of courtesy ritual grows; from a sense of right and wrong wisdom grows. People have these four germs, just as they have four limbs For someone with these four potentials to claim incompetence is to cripple himself; to say his ruler is incapable of them is to cripple his ruler Those who know ho~ to develop the four potentials within themselves will take off like a fire or burst forth like a spring. Those who can fully develop them can protect the entire land while those unable to develop them cannot even take care of their parents.
(Patricia Ebrey)

"Gaozi said,'Human nature is like whirling water When an outlet is opened to the east, it flows east; when an outlet is opened to the west, it flows west Human nature is no more inclined to good or bad than water is inclined to east or west'. Mencius responded, Water, it is true is not inclined to either east or west, but does it have no preference for high or low? Goodness is to human nature like flowing downward to water. There are no people who are not good and no water that does not flow down . Still water if splashed can go higher than your head; if forced, it can be brought up a hill This isn't the nature of water; it is the specific circumstances. Although people can be made to be bad, their natures are not changed." (De Bary and Bloom).

Mencius taught the rulers of the warring states that if they had the needs of the people foremost in mind, the needs of the kingdom would follow suit because the two were inseparable from each other. He said "Ask what is best for the people not what is profitable for the kingdom. If the king looks for profit, the minister will look for profit, the general will look for profit, the farmer will look for profit, and none will be happy. If the King looks for what is best for the people so will the minister and the general and the farmer and the people will have what they need and all will be happy." This teaches that in greed no one prospers and everyone suffers, but when all look after each other, everyone can prosper and all can be in a happy state. He urged the kings to work on expanding their "Qi" which is a mental and spiritual state of being in which one feels the energy that comes from doing the right thing for the right reason. This sympathetic responsiveness towards others would become one of the most important contributions to the later Chinese philosophy. "Heaven in giving birth to humankind, created for each thing its own rule. The people's common disposition is to love this admirable virtue." (Ebrey)--[[User:Bill P|Bill P]] 16:09, 15 February 2013 (UTC)

In the end,I am committed to a type of benevolent dictatorship, which puts moral value before pragmatic value and in this way seeks to benefit both ruler and subjects. The sage-kings of antiquity are a model, but one cannot simply adopt their customs and institutions and expect to govern effectively. Instead, one must emulate the sage-kings both in terms of outer structures (good laws, wise policies, correct rituals) and in terms of inner motivations (placing ren and yi first). Like Confucius, Mencius places an enormous amount of confidence in the capacity of the ordinary person to respond to an extraordinary ruler, so as to put the world in order. It is necessary for everyone to remember his place and everyone else's to remember their places so all can enjoy life and become better citizens.

==References==
*Patricia Ebrey, Chinese Civilization : A Sourcebook, 2d ed. (New York: Free Press, 1993), pp. 22-24
*Chang, Kang-i Sun, and Stephen Owen. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2010. Print.
*De Bary, Theodore and Irene Bloom. Sources of Chinese Tradition 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999
*newadvent.org

Weblinks
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius
*http://www.iep.utm.edu/mencius/
*http://www.newadvent.org

== Classroom Presentations ==
*Powerpoint file by Olivia [[Media:Mencius.pptx]]
*Powerpoint file by Bill P. [[Media:Mencius.pptx]]

Laozi

2013-04-17T07:30:35Z

Christopher W:

Lao Zi:

I am best known of being the Author of the Daodejing

I am the founder of Daoism and I am also known as a deity in Daoist philosophy. I am also know as "One of the three pure ones".

Many noble and common people claim to be of my lineage

The earliest records of me are found in the "shiji" by historian Si maqian

I was an official in the imperial royal court of Zhou, I was also a contemporary of Confucius

In the Mid 20th century my book was considered doubtful and unproven because it had gone through the hands of many

It is said that before I was born, I stayed in my mothers womb for 62 years, then finally I was born after my mother leaned against a plum tree

At the age of 160 I went out west to live as a hermit but was recognized at the Western gate by a guard who asked me to write down my wisdom, in which then became the Daodejing

The guard was named Yin xi, he then became my follower and then devoted his life to my teachings

Since the Han dynasty Daoism had developed a more religious tone, I was then later viewed and considered a God

Some notable teachings of mine are: Wu Wei, which means=non-action and or non-forcing. These concepts are used to explain "Ziran" (Nature) or harmony of the Dao.

Cited:

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China.New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010

Xunzi

2013-04-17T07:27:03Z

Christopher W:

== Xunzi ==
I am Xunzi, but I am also known by my birth name of Xun Kuang. I was born in 310 BCE and I died in approximately 221 BCE. I lived my entire life during some of China´s most tumultuous years, the infamous Warring States Period, where territories or provinces were constantly battling each other for territory, resources, and people. I was born in the Zhao Province but left in my early twenties to attend the Jixia academy and to fill an advisory position in the Qi Province to the east. I was soon recognized as a man of great potential and philosophical intelligence and left Qi to operate an administrative position in the government of the Chu Province to the south until my sponsor died in 238 BCE forcing me into retirement. It was after this retirement that I was truly able to devote myself to the spreading of my philosophies and traveling around to the different regions of China. Though it is possible that I may have lived long enough to witness the establishment of the unification of China and the establishment of the Qin Dynasty, it can only be left to speculation. It was through my devotion to teaching my interpretation of Confucian philosophy that I was able to influence the future of China and contribute, through my students Li Si and Han Feizi, to the establishment of a more stabilized and unified China.(Elstein)

== Works ==
I, Xunzi, was the primary author of an important philosophical text which was named after me. The text was comprised of 32 books in the form of bamboo strips, 25 of which were authentically written by myself. I wrote in the style of argumentative essays instead of in parables as did Zhuangzi or in dialogue form like my primary rival Mencius. I was also the first Confucian scholar to elevate the sometimes vague or complicated sayings and conversations expressed by Confucius and Mencius to a level of reasoning, topical development, clarity, and detail through rational organization and expression in essay form. The seven books that are not directly attributed to me were written by my students and followers based on the teachings they received from their master teacher, however, the text comprises probably the largest compilation of early Chinese philosophical works that can be accredited to one author.(Robins)

=== Interpretations ===
Surprisingly, I never discussed directly my own written works and so the first mention of them are attributed to Liu Hsiang, a Han scholar that noticed my work among three hundred and twenty-two bundles of bamboo writings and organized them. The works were never formally analyzed until 818 CE and comprise the same analysis that predominates scholarship on my philosophies even today. The fact that the work is written in the form of clear arguments makes it more accessible to a wider audience than the more abstract philosophies of other philosophers of the period.(Ebrey)

=== Methods for Learning ===
Because I was a student of Confucius, my first step to learning is to be near a teacher, and follow that person and devote one's life to learning. The second is to observe the Confucian rights actively. Through these two steps, learning is a tool to unify oneself.
My steps to learning:
*Hold firm to the inner power => this will bring order to the body => which will help respond to others => which will create a complete man.
*Self cultivate. Be open and serious, be involved in social processes, and reject flattery and accept criticism and act on that criticism.
Learning comes from acting, and acting brings about reactions. If a person does not do the things he/she learns, he/she will not have true knowledge. So a person can be noble, but unless they were to practice daily, they could not be perfect. Perfection comes from taking little steps, achievement means never giving up and will power is the key to never giving up. Knowledge obtained in this way is to be embodied and should not be used to obtain attention.

My process for learning is a lifelong endeavor being gradual, unceasing, and coming in increments. Concerning this subject I once stated that:

"The gentlemen trains his eyes so that they desire only to see what is right, his ears so that they desire to hear only what is right, his mind so that it desires to thing only what is right. When he has truly learnt to love what is right, his eyes will take greater pleasure in it than in fine colours; his ears will take greater pleasure than in the fine sounds; his mouth will take greater pleasure than in the fine flavours; and his mind will feel keener delight than in possession of the world. When he has reached this stage, he cannot be subverted by power or the love of profit. He cannot be swayed by the masses. He cannot be moved by the world."(Theosophy Library Online)

The ideal civilization is based on morality and bred through lifelong learning.

==== Contemporary Commentary ====
Much of what Xunzi proposes here is true. The learning process is gradual and ever-changing based on one's changing in understanding. The more that an individual knows, the more they know that they know very little. The more education that one can obtain, the more they are able to enjoy the world around them. Xunzi also makes a very important point when he states that an educated individual cannot be subverted, swayed, or moved by outside influences. Those who are ignorant are typically weaker in their resolve and decision making than those that have reached a higher state of awareness and understanding.

== Philosophy ==

=== The Way, Heaven, and Nature ===
Despite being clear and well-explained in the written form, my philosophy is controversial and at times quite complex. Like many of the other scholars of the Warring States Period, I subscribed to the concept of the Way or the Dao. I described my theories of the Way in terms of a proper way of living instead of a theoretical road or path to prosperity and happiness. My realistic approach to the Way means that my views of Heaven and Nature are less referential to the supernatural and more based on the results of commitment to consistency.

I believe that Heaven does not intervene in the affairs of men, but rather acts in a consistent and predictable manner. Heaven does not reward or punish men for their actions because it is up to the individual to being their own good fortune based on their adherence to the Way. I believe that following the Way leads to a peaceful and orderly society, while ignoring certain aspects of the Way, leads to the perpetual frustrations brought about by Human Nature. For example, having a good harvest is not an answer to prayer, but rather a direct result of good agricultural policy. Natural occurrences such as eclipses, natural disasters, etc. are not from deity, but are simply nature being nature and were bound to happen regardless of the behavior of men. People should not do good things to please heaven, instead they should do good things in order to be prepared for any situation or difficulty that may arise. (Elstein) I firmly believe that "if you are single-minded in your cultivation of the Way, Heaven cannot sent disasters. Thus, even if they come, droughts and floods will not bring starvation, extremes of temperature will not bring illness, uncanny phenomena will not prove unlucky."(Ebrey) The converse is undoubtedly true as well, if one does not prepare sufficiently, then whether the disasters come or not, the people will certainly suffer, not at the fault of Heaven, but at their own fault.

I do not discount the proper utilization of rituals in order to bind society together. I once gave the example that if you pray for rain and it rains. It is not a direct consequence of your prayers. It is just as though you had not prayed for rain and it rained anyway. The performance of the ritual does not cause the outcome, but it unites the people under a common cause and it is therefore necessary. I also "condemned magical practices, not because they were illusory or ineffective, but because most people got involved in them only for dark and selfish purposes."(Theosophy Library Online)

==== Contemporary Commentary ====
In modern terms, one does not carry a spare tire and first aid kit in one's car in order to please heaven and receive blessings. One carries those items in case a tire is destroyed or there is some injury. Xunzi believed in practicality, reason, and being realistic over attributing mystical powers to heaven and nature. Many times people attribute the use of faith to the altering of weather or natural events as in the instance with praying for rain. Perhaps what they did not realize is that rain was already on the way and their prayers simply corresponded with the timing of the weather's arrival. Xunzi did not seek to completely discredit their ritualistic efforts, but at the same time wanted to establish that nature is constant and uninfluenced by the actions of man. The only value that the rituals had was organizing society and reiterating the role and status of leaders.

=== Human Nature ===
One of the most important contributions that I made through my philosophy was my view on Human Nature. Contrary to many other scholars, specifically Mencius, I believed that Human Nature is evil. When I taught this concept it was not to imply that by nature humans find pleasure in being evil or doing bad things, but rather that they are born without a moral compass and their natural and original state at birth is chaos and contention. I argued that this point is clearly visible in the selfish and needy nature of humans and that the controlling of that behavior comes by means of cultivating change through lifelong learning paired with adherence to ritual. My philosophy of human nature "is based on a distinction between those characteristics that arise spontaneously in people and cannot be changed, on the one hand, and characteristics that are the result of human effort, on the other."(Robins)

In basic terms, I believe that people do not have success or failure because of their inherent abilities or natural talents, but because of their commitment to follow the Way and constant efforts towards personal change and improvement. I taught that "the difference between the gentlemen and the common person lies not in their desires, but in the actions they take to satisfy their desires." (Robins) This is where rituals come into play. Rituals are not used to eliminate the natural desires of man, but rather to nourish those desires and establish semblances of order in life. "Gentlemen consider them to be art of the way of man; common people think they have something to do with ghosts."(Ebrey)

When my philosophical rival Mencius sought to argue that the nature of man was good, not evil as I have always indicated, I explained to him that if that were true there would be no need for the institution of rituals and duties which the sages of old established and that we require these in order to control and reign in our innate tendencies for evil.

I was able to firmly establish the veracity of my claim against the misguided thinking of Mencius and other philosophers when I stated that:

"Man's nature is evil; goodness is the result of conscious activity. The nature of man is such that he is born with a fondness for profit. If he indulges this fondness, it will lead him into wrangling and strife, and all sense of courtesy and humility will disappear. He is born with feelings of envy and hate, and if he indulges these, they will lead him into violence and crime, and all sense of loyalty and good faith will disappear. Man is born with the desires of the eyes and ears, with a fondness for beautiful sights and sounds. If he indulges these, they will lead him into licence and wantonness, and all ritual principles and correct forms will be lost. Hence, any man who follows his nature and indulges his emotions will inevitably become involved in wrangling and strife, will violate the forms and rules of society, and will end as a criminal."(Theosophy Library Online)

I said this because I firmly believe that a society is only as perfect as the sum of the moral and spiritual attainments of its people. Certainly no one, including Mencius, can refute that.

==== Contemporary Commentary ====
Xunzi's view on Human Nature has been very controversial for many people because they think that he is somehow degrading the status of what it means to be human. In fact, when he says that human nature is to be "evil" he does not actually mean to demonize humanity, but rather to highlight the natural tendencies towards chaos, contention, and other complications when there is no established order or authority. Humanity naturally seeks out leaders, authority figures, and order when there is chaos.

=== Government and Politics ===
Quite obviously, the philosophical standard in reference to government during the Warring States Period was monarchy. I taught during my lifetime that the government should have a paternal relationship with its people in the sense that they provided the means for success through the performance of rituals, and the people respond with loyalty. I believe that the best government is one based on a society with strong social distinctions because it is through hierarchy that limits are established and control over human nature can be maintained. I believe that equality among everyone in a society is a grave mistake because it creates an environment for competition and contention. If all the people stand on equal ground, their desires will all be the same and they will naturally compete to attain those desires. Strict hierarchy must be at the foundation of every government and society because it reminds everyone of their role and responsibility, thus eliminating the possibilities for conflict. People will freely subjugate themselves to the best governments because they will recognize the order and peace that has been accomplished. (Elstein)

The basic structure of hierarchy according to my system had lower peasant classes that were responsible for common labor, the 'junzi' or gentlemen who oversaw the lower classes, and the 'ru' who were the erudite men of status. The 'ru' were principally responsible for the execution and application of the 'li-yi' or rituals and duties, in order to reiterate their status and authority as leaders and rulers in society. This hierarchy serves as the foundation for the most efficient and best functioning government.

The worst governments are those that have been established through military force and violence because their foundation is fear and death, not order and structure. In truth, I was a political realist. I taught to dismiss those who are incompetent, promote those who are worthy, punish the evil, transform the ordinary, and anyone that uses talents against the good of the people should put to death. Punishments are not desirable, but are necessary when individuals threaten the hierarchy or order of a people. The emperor should not rely on outer force, but should strengthen inner power. Lords should preserve and protect subjects and be respectful towards other lords. A ruler should regulate affairs, have several rates of taxation, and unify commerce so that all can prosper. The role of government is to be very involved in the lives of the people so that order can be maintained.

Hierarchy and status do not mean that I believed in hereditary privilege or leadership positions based on birthright or wealth. I saw the value and virtue of a man as defined by his literacy and education, especially in regards to his adherence to the Way as the determining factor for good leadership. Those entrusted with leadership are required to uphold the essential rituals of society. I taught that "the scholar-officials who are to govern that society have as their primary function the preservation and transmission of these ritual practices."(Sampaolo, Stefan and Zhu) Religious rituals were allowed in society "only to the extent that they reaffirmed human interdependence and social solidarity, but were to be outlawed when the goals were power and salvation."(Theosophy Library Online)

== My Legacy ==
Because my ideal society was never truly established I died considering myself a failure, however, I never lived to see my philosophies achieve their potential. Two of my most well-known pupils became very influential philosophers in the establishment of the unification of China and the future culture of that nation. Li Si, one of my best students became one of the intellectual architects of the Qin unification. Han Feizi, was another scholar who was influenced by my teachings though many of his philosophies differed from my own. The continued study of my text as well as what was added to it after my death but written about my actions and teachings, perpetuated my influence over hundreds of years and make it so my work is still considered relevant in many ways today. Though my teacher Confucius is more widely known, and rightly so, I feel that his ideas only appeal to the masses because they are remained under-developed and open to interpretation. My fellow pupil and rival Mencius is probably more popular because of his supposed "positive" view of humanity than mine, however, I still assert that he misses the mark on many of his theories. I know that I am not as well known to the general public, but once people read and begin to understand my work they will comprehend the depth and intricacy of my arguments.(P. B. Ebrey, p.51)

=== Presentation for Classroom Use ===
[[Media:Xunzi.pptx]]

== References ==
de Bary, WM. Theodore & Bloom, Irene. Sources of Chinese tradition, vol 1, 2nd ed. Columbia University Press, 1999 New York.
Pages 159-183

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History. London: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Ebrey, Patricia. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook 2d ed. New York: Free Press, 1993. pp. 24-26.

Elstein, David. Xunzi (Hsün Tzu, c.310—c.220 BCE). 30 August 2004. http://www.iep.utm.edu/xunzi/. 27 February 2013.

Robins, Dan. Xunzi. 13 February 2007. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/xunzi/#humans. 27 February 2013.

Sampaolo, Marco, Matt Stefan and Rishon Zhu. "Xunzi." 2013. Encyclopaedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/274068/Xunzi. 27 February 2013.

Theosophy Library Online. Hsun Tzu. 2000. http://web.archive.org/web/20051215105300/http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/teachers/HsunTzu.htm. 27 February 2013.

Xunzi

2013-04-17T07:25:37Z

Christopher W: /* The Way, Heaven, and Nature */

[[File:Xun_zi.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Xunzi also known as Xun Kuang]]

== Xunzi ==
I am Xunzi, but I am also known by my birth name of Xun Kuang. I was born in 310 BCE and I died in approximately 221 BCE. I lived my entire life during some of China´s most tumultuous years, the infamous Warring States Period, where territories or provinces were constantly battling each other for territory, resources, and people. I was born in the Zhao Province but left in my early twenties to attend the Jixia academy and to fill an advisory position in the Qi Province to the east. I was soon recognized as a man of great potential and philosophical intelligence and left Qi to operate an administrative position in the government of the Chu Province to the south until my sponsor died in 238 BCE forcing me into retirement. It was after this retirement that I was truly able to devote myself to the spreading of my philosophies and traveling around to the different regions of China. Though it is possible that I may have lived long enough to witness the establishment of the unification of China and the establishment of the Qin Dynasty, it can only be left to speculation. It was through my devotion to teaching my interpretation of Confucian philosophy that I was able to influence the future of China and contribute, through my students Li Si and Han Feizi, to the establishment of a more stabilized and unified China.(Elstein)

[[File:EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Map of the Chinese Warring States Period c.260 BCE]]

== Works ==
I, Xunzi, was the primary author of an important philosophical text which was named after me. The text was comprised of 32 books in the form of bamboo strips, 25 of which were authentically written by myself. I wrote in the style of argumentative essays instead of in parables as did Zhuangzi or in dialogue form like my primary rival Mencius. I was also the first Confucian scholar to elevate the sometimes vague or complicated sayings and conversations expressed by Confucius and Mencius to a level of reasoning, topical development, clarity, and detail through rational organization and expression in essay form. The seven books that are not directly attributed to me were written by my students and followers based on the teachings they received from their master teacher, however, the text comprises probably the largest compilation of early Chinese philosophical works that can be accredited to one author.(Robins)

=== Interpretations ===
Surprisingly, I never discussed directly my own written works and so the first mention of them are attributed to Liu Hsiang, a Han scholar that noticed my work among three hundred and twenty-two bundles of bamboo writings and organized them. The works were never formally analyzed until 818 CE and comprise the same analysis that predominates scholarship on my philosophies even today. The fact that the work is written in the form of clear arguments makes it more accessible to a wider audience than the more abstract philosophies of other philosophers of the period.(Ebrey)

[[File:Xunzi_script.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Sample of the Xunzi text.]]

=== Methods for Learning ===
Because I was a student of Confucius, my first step to learning is to be near a teacher, and follow that person and devote one's life to learning. The second is to observe the Confucian rights actively. Through these two steps, learning is a tool to unify oneself.
My steps to learning:
*Hold firm to the inner power => this will bring order to the body => which will help respond to others => which will create a complete man.
*Self cultivate. Be open and serious, be involved in social processes, and reject flattery and accept criticism and act on that criticism.
Learning comes from acting, and acting brings about reactions. If a person does not do the things he/she learns, he/she will not have true knowledge. So a person can be noble, but unless they were to practice daily, they could not be perfect. Perfection comes from taking little steps, achievement means never giving up and will power is the key to never giving up. Knowledge obtained in this way is to be embodied and should not be used to obtain attention.

My process for learning is a lifelong endeavor being gradual, unceasing, and coming in increments. Concerning this subject I once stated that:

"The gentlemen trains his eyes so that they desire only to see what is right, his ears so that they desire to hear only what is right, his mind so that it desires to thing only what is right. When he has truly learnt to love what is right, his eyes will take greater pleasure in it than in fine colours; his ears will take greater pleasure than in the fine sounds; his mouth will take greater pleasure than in the fine flavours; and his mind will feel keener delight than in possession of the world. When he has reached this stage, he cannot be subverted by power or the love of profit. He cannot be swayed by the masses. He cannot be moved by the world."(Theosophy Library Online)

The ideal civilization is based on morality and bred through lifelong learning.

==== Contemporary Commentary ====
Much of what Xunzi proposes here is true. The learning process is gradual and ever-changing based on one's changing in understanding. The more that an individual knows, the more they know that they know very little. The more education that one can obtain, the more they are able to enjoy the world around them. Xunzi also makes a very important point when he states that an educated individual cannot be subverted, swayed, or moved by outside influences. Those who are ignorant are typically weaker in their resolve and decision making than those that have reached a higher state of awareness and understanding.

== Philosophy ==

=== The Way, Heaven, and Nature ===
Despite being clear and well-explained in the written form, my philosophy is controversial and at times quite complex. Like many of the other scholars of the Warring States Period, I subscribed to the concept of the Way or the Dao. I described my theories of the Way in terms of a proper way of living instead of a theoretical road or path to prosperity and happiness. My realistic approach to the Way means that my views of Heaven and Nature are less referential to the supernatural and more based on the results of commitment to consistency.

I believe that Heaven does not intervene in the affairs of men, but rather acts in a consistent and predictable manner. Heaven does not reward or punish men for their actions because it is up to the individual to being their own good fortune based on their adherence to the Way. I believe that following the Way leads to a peaceful and orderly society, while ignoring certain aspects of the Way, leads to the perpetual frustrations brought about by Human Nature. For example, having a good harvest is not an answer to prayer, but rather a direct result of good agricultural policy. Natural occurrences such as eclipses, natural disasters, etc. are not from deity, but are simply nature being nature and were bound to happen regardless of the behavior of men. People should not do good things to please heaven, instead they should do good things in order to be prepared for any situation or difficulty that may arise. (Elstein) I firmly believe that "if you are single-minded in your cultivation of the Way, Heaven cannot sent disasters. Thus, even if they come, droughts and floods will not bring starvation, extremes of temperature will not bring illness, uncanny phenomena will not prove unlucky."(Ebrey) The converse is undoubtedly true as well, if one does not prepare sufficiently, then whether the disasters come or not, the people will certainly suffer, not at the fault of Heaven, but at their own fault.

I do not discount the proper utilization of rituals in order to bind society together. I once gave the example that if you pray for rain and it rains. It is not a direct consequence of your prayers. It is just as though you had not prayed for rain and it rained anyway. The performance of the ritual does not cause the outcome, but it unites the people under a common cause and it is therefore necessary. I also "condemned magical practices, not because they were illusory or ineffective, but because most people got involved in them only for dark and selfish purposes."(Theosophy Library Online)

==== Contemporary Commentary ====
In modern terms, one does not carry a spare tire and first aid kit in one's car in order to please heaven and receive blessings. One carries those items in case a tire is destroyed or there is some injury. Xunzi believed in practicality, reason, and being realistic over attributing mystical powers to heaven and nature. Many times people attribute the use of faith to the altering of weather or natural events as in the instance with praying for rain. Perhaps what they did not realize is that rain was already on the way and their prayers simply corresponded with the timing of the weather's arrival. Xunzi did not seek to completely discredit their ritualistic efforts, but at the same time wanted to establish that nature is constant and uninfluenced by the actions of man. The only value that the rituals had was organizing society and reiterating the role and status of leaders.

=== Human Nature ===
One of the most important contributions that I made through my philosophy was my view on Human Nature. Contrary to many other scholars, specifically Mencius, I believed that Human Nature is evil. When I taught this concept it was not to imply that by nature humans find pleasure in being evil or doing bad things, but rather that they are born without a moral compass and their natural and original state at birth is chaos and contention. I argued that this point is clearly visible in the selfish and needy nature of humans and that the controlling of that behavior comes by means of cultivating change through lifelong learning paired with adherence to ritual. My philosophy of human nature "is based on a distinction between those characteristics that arise spontaneously in people and cannot be changed, on the one hand, and characteristics that are the result of human effort, on the other."(Robins)

In basic terms, I believe that people do not have success or failure because of their inherent abilities or natural talents, but because of their commitment to follow the Way and constant efforts towards personal change and improvement. I taught that "the difference between the gentlemen and the common person lies not in their desires, but in the actions they take to satisfy their desires." (Robins) This is where rituals come into play. Rituals are not used to eliminate the natural desires of man, but rather to nourish those desires and establish semblances of order in life. "Gentlemen consider them to be art of the way of man; common people think they have something to do with ghosts."(Ebrey)

[[File:Mencius_rival.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mencius, the fellow student of Confucius and philosophical rival of Xunzi]]

When my philosophical rival Mencius sought to argue that the nature of man was good, not evil as I have always indicated, I explained to him that if that were true there would be no need for the institution of rituals and duties which the sages of old established and that we require these in order to control and reign in our innate tendencies for evil.

I was able to firmly establish the veracity of my claim against the misguided thinking of Mencius and other philosophers when I stated that:

"Man's nature is evil; goodness is the result of conscious activity. The nature of man is such that he is born with a fondness for profit. If he indulges this fondness, it will lead him into wrangling and strife, and all sense of courtesy and humility will disappear. He is born with feelings of envy and hate, and if he indulges these, they will lead him into violence and crime, and all sense of loyalty and good faith will disappear. Man is born with the desires of the eyes and ears, with a fondness for beautiful sights and sounds. If he indulges these, they will lead him into licence and wantonness, and all ritual principles and correct forms will be lost. Hence, any man who follows his nature and indulges his emotions will inevitably become involved in wrangling and strife, will violate the forms and rules of society, and will end as a criminal."(Theosophy Library Online)

I said this because I firmly believe that a society is only as perfect as the sum of the moral and spiritual attainments of its people. Certainly no one, including Mencius, can refute that.

==== Contemporary Commentary ====
Xunzi's view on Human Nature has been very controversial for many people because they think that he is somehow degrading the status of what it means to be human. In fact, when he says that human nature is to be "evil" he does not actually mean to demonize humanity, but rather to highlight the natural tendencies towards chaos, contention, and other complications when there is no established order or authority. Humanity naturally seeks out leaders, authority figures, and order when there is chaos.

=== Government and Politics ===
Quite obviously, the philosophical standard in reference to government during the Warring States Period was monarchy. I taught during my lifetime that the government should have a paternal relationship with its people in the sense that they provided the means for success through the performance of rituals, and the people respond with loyalty. I believe that the best government is one based on a society with strong social distinctions because it is through hierarchy that limits are established and control over human nature can be maintained. I believe that equality among everyone in a society is a grave mistake because it creates an environment for competition and contention. If all the people stand on equal ground, their desires will all be the same and they will naturally compete to attain those desires. Strict hierarchy must be at the foundation of every government and society because it reminds everyone of their role and responsibility, thus eliminating the possibilities for conflict. People will freely subjugate themselves to the best governments because they will recognize the order and peace that has been accomplished. (Elstein)

The basic structure of hierarchy according to my system had lower peasant classes that were responsible for common labor, the 'junzi' or gentlemen who oversaw the lower classes, and the 'ru' who were the erudite men of status. The 'ru' were principally responsible for the execution and application of the 'li-yi' or rituals and duties, in order to reiterate their status and authority as leaders and rulers in society. This hierarchy serves as the foundation for the most efficient and best functioning government.

The worst governments are those that have been established through military force and violence because their foundation is fear and death, not order and structure. In truth, I was a political realist. I taught to dismiss those who are incompetent, promote those who are worthy, punish the evil, transform the ordinary, and anyone that uses talents against the good of the people should put to death. Punishments are not desirable, but are necessary when individuals threaten the hierarchy or order of a people. The emperor should not rely on outer force, but should strengthen inner power. Lords should preserve and protect subjects and be respectful towards other lords. A ruler should regulate affairs, have several rates of taxation, and unify commerce so that all can prosper. The role of government is to be very involved in the lives of the people so that order can be maintained.

Hierarchy and status do not mean that I believed in hereditary privilege or leadership positions based on birthright or wealth. I saw the value and virtue of a man as defined by his literacy and education, especially in regards to his adherence to the Way as the determining factor for good leadership. Those entrusted with leadership are required to uphold the essential rituals of society. I taught that "the scholar-officials who are to govern that society have as their primary function the preservation and transmission of these ritual practices."(Sampaolo, Stefan and Zhu) Religious rituals were allowed in society "only to the extent that they reaffirmed human interdependence and social solidarity, but were to be outlawed when the goals were power and salvation."(Theosophy Library Online)

== My Legacy ==
Because my ideal society was never truly established I died considering myself a failure, however, I never lived to see my philosophies achieve their potential. Two of my most well-known pupils became very influential philosophers in the establishment of the unification of China and the future culture of that nation. Li Si, one of my best students became one of the intellectual architects of the Qin unification. Han Feizi, was another scholar who was influenced by my teachings though many of his philosophies differed from my own. The continued study of my text as well as what was added to it after my death but written about my actions and teachings, perpetuated my influence over hundreds of years and make it so my work is still considered relevant in many ways today. Though my teacher Confucius is more widely known, and rightly so, I feel that his ideas only appeal to the masses because they are remained under-developed and open to interpretation. My fellow pupil and rival Mencius is probably more popular because of his supposed "positive" view of humanity than mine, however, I still assert that he misses the mark on many of his theories. I know that I am not as well known to the general public, but once people read and begin to understand my work they will comprehend the depth and intricacy of my arguments.(P. B. Ebrey, p.51)

=== Presentation for Classroom Use ===
[[Media:Xunzi.pptx]]

== References ==
de Bary, WM. Theodore & Bloom, Irene. Sources of Chinese tradition, vol 1, 2nd ed. Columbia University Press, 1999 New York.
Pages 159-183

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History. London: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Ebrey, Patricia. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook 2d ed. New York: Free Press, 1993. pp. 24-26.

Elstein, David. Xunzi (Hsün Tzu, c.310—c.220 BCE). 30 August 2004. http://www.iep.utm.edu/xunzi/. 27 February 2013.

Robins, Dan. Xunzi. 13 February 2007. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/xunzi/#humans. 27 February 2013.

Sampaolo, Marco, Matt Stefan and Rishon Zhu. "Xunzi." 2013. Encyclopaedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/274068/Xunzi. 27 February 2013.

Theosophy Library Online. Hsun Tzu. 2000. http://web.archive.org/web/20051215105300/http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/teachers/HsunTzu.htm. 27 February 2013.

Xunzi

2013-04-17T07:21:22Z

Christopher W: /* Interpretations */

[[File:Xun_zi.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Xunzi also known as Xun Kuang]]

== Xunzi ==
I am Xunzi, but I am also known by my birth name of Xun Kuang. I was born in 310 BCE and I died in approximately 221 BCE. I lived my entire life during some of China´s most tumultuous years, the infamous Warring States Period, where territories or provinces were constantly battling each other for territory, resources, and people. I was born in the Zhao Province but left in my early twenties to attend the Jixia academy and to fill an advisory position in the Qi Province to the east. I was soon recognized as a man of great potential and philosophical intelligence and left Qi to operate an administrative position in the government of the Chu Province to the south until my sponsor died in 238 BCE forcing me into retirement. It was after this retirement that I was truly able to devote myself to the spreading of my philosophies and traveling around to the different regions of China. Though it is possible that I may have lived long enough to witness the establishment of the unification of China and the establishment of the Qin Dynasty, it can only be left to speculation. It was through my devotion to teaching my interpretation of Confucian philosophy that I was able to influence the future of China and contribute, through my students Li Si and Han Feizi, to the establishment of a more stabilized and unified China.(Elstein)

[[File:EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Map of the Chinese Warring States Period c.260 BCE]]

== Works ==
I, Xunzi, was the primary author of an important philosophical text which was named after me. The text was comprised of 32 books in the form of bamboo strips, 25 of which were authentically written by myself. I wrote in the style of argumentative essays instead of in parables as did Zhuangzi or in dialogue form like my primary rival Mencius. I was also the first Confucian scholar to elevate the sometimes vague or complicated sayings and conversations expressed by Confucius and Mencius to a level of reasoning, topical development, clarity, and detail through rational organization and expression in essay form. The seven books that are not directly attributed to me were written by my students and followers based on the teachings they received from their master teacher, however, the text comprises probably the largest compilation of early Chinese philosophical works that can be accredited to one author.(Robins)

=== Interpretations ===
Surprisingly, I never discussed directly my own written works and so the first mention of them are attributed to Liu Hsiang, a Han scholar that noticed my work among three hundred and twenty-two bundles of bamboo writings and organized them. The works were never formally analyzed until 818 CE and comprise the same analysis that predominates scholarship on my philosophies even today. The fact that the work is written in the form of clear arguments makes it more accessible to a wider audience than the more abstract philosophies of other philosophers of the period.(Ebrey)

[[File:Xunzi_script.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Sample of the Xunzi text.]]

=== Methods for Learning ===
Because I was a student of Confucius, my first step to learning is to be near a teacher, and follow that person and devote one's life to learning. The second is to observe the Confucian rights actively. Through these two steps, learning is a tool to unify oneself.
My steps to learning:
*Hold firm to the inner power => this will bring order to the body => which will help respond to others => which will create a complete man.
*Self cultivate. Be open and serious, be involved in social processes, and reject flattery and accept criticism and act on that criticism.
Learning comes from acting, and acting brings about reactions. If a person does not do the things he/she learns, he/she will not have true knowledge. So a person can be noble, but unless they were to practice daily, they could not be perfect. Perfection comes from taking little steps, achievement means never giving up and will power is the key to never giving up. Knowledge obtained in this way is to be embodied and should not be used to obtain attention.

My process for learning is a lifelong endeavor being gradual, unceasing, and coming in increments. Concerning this subject I once stated that:

"The gentlemen trains his eyes so that they desire only to see what is right, his ears so that they desire to hear only what is right, his mind so that it desires to thing only what is right. When he has truly learnt to love what is right, his eyes will take greater pleasure in it than in fine colours; his ears will take greater pleasure than in the fine sounds; his mouth will take greater pleasure than in the fine flavours; and his mind will feel keener delight than in possession of the world. When he has reached this stage, he cannot be subverted by power or the love of profit. He cannot be swayed by the masses. He cannot be moved by the world."(Theosophy Library Online)

The ideal civilization is based on morality and bred through lifelong learning.

==== Contemporary Commentary ====
Much of what Xunzi proposes here is true. The learning process is gradual and ever-changing based on one's changing in understanding. The more that an individual knows, the more they know that they know very little. The more education that one can obtain, the more they are able to enjoy the world around them. Xunzi also makes a very important point when he states that an educated individual cannot be subverted, swayed, or moved by outside influences. Those who are ignorant are typically weaker in their resolve and decision making than those that have reached a higher state of awareness and understanding.

== Philosophy ==

=== The Way, Heaven, and Nature ===
Despite being clear and well-explained in the written form, the my philosophy is controversial and at times quite complex. Like many of the other scholars of the Warring States Period, I subscribed to the concept of the Way or the Dao. I described my theories of the Way in terms of a proper way of living instead of a theoretical road or path to prosperity and happiness. My realistic approach to the Way means that my views of Heaven and Nature are less referential to the supernatural and more based on the results of commitment to consistency.

I believe that Heaven does not intervene in the affairs of men, but rather acts in a consistent and predictable manner. Heaven does not reward or punish men for their actions because it is up to the individual to being their own good fortune based on their adherence to the Way. I believe that following the Way leads to a peaceful and orderly society, while ignoring certain aspects of the Way, leads to the perpetual frustrations brought about by Human Nature. For example, having a good harvest is not an answer to prayer, but rather a direct result of good agricultural policy. Natural occurrences such as eclipses, natural disasters, etc. are not from deity, but are simply nature being nature and were bound to happen regardless of the behavior of men. People should not do good things to please heaven, instead they should do good things in order to be prepared for any situation or difficulty that may arise. (Elstein) I firmly believe that "if you are single-minded in your cultivation of the Way, Heaven cannot sent disasters. Thus, even if they come, droughts and floods will not bring starvation, extremes of temperature will not bring illness, uncanny phenomena will not prove unlucky."(Ebrey) The converse is undoubtedly true as well, if one does not prepare sufficiently, then whether the disasters come or not, the people will certainly suffer, not at the fault of Heaven, but at their own fault.

I do not discount the proper utilization of rituals in order to bind society together. I once gave the example that if you pray for rain and it rains. It is not a direct consequence of your prayers. It is just as though you had not prayed for rain and it rained anyway. The performance of the ritual does not cause the outcome, but it unites the people under a common cause and it is therefore necessary. I also "condemned magical practices, not because they were illusory or ineffective, but because most people got involved in them only for dark and selfish purposes."(Theosophy Library Online)

==== Contemporary Commentary ====
In modern terms, one does not carry a spare tire and first aid kit in your cars in order to please heaven and receive blessings. One carries those items in case a tire is destroyed or there is some injury. Xunzi believed in practicality, reason, and being realistic over attributing mystical powers to heaven and nature. Many times people attribute the use of faith to the altering of weather or natural events as in the instance with praying for rain. Perhaps what they did not realize is that rain was already on the way and their prayers simply corresponded with the timing of the weather's arrival. Xunzi did not seek to completely discredit their ritualistic efforts, but at the same time wanted to establish that nature is constant and uninfluenced by the actions of man. The only value that the rituals had was organizing society and reiterating the role and status of leaders.

=== Human Nature ===
One of the most important contributions that I made through my philosophy was my view on Human Nature. Contrary to many other scholars, specifically Mencius, I believed that Human Nature is evil. When I taught this concept it was not to imply that by nature humans find pleasure in being evil or doing bad things, but rather that they are born without a moral compass and their natural and original state at birth is chaos and contention. I argued that this point is clearly visible in the selfish and needy nature of humans and that the controlling of that behavior comes by means of cultivating change through lifelong learning paired with adherence to ritual. My philosophy of human nature "is based on a distinction between those characteristics that arise spontaneously in people and cannot be changed, on the one hand, and characteristics that are the result of human effort, on the other."(Robins)

In basic terms, I believe that people do not have success or failure because of their inherent abilities or natural talents, but because of their commitment to follow the Way and constant efforts towards personal change and improvement. I taught that "the difference between the gentlemen and the common person lies not in their desires, but in the actions they take to satisfy their desires." (Robins) This is where rituals come into play. Rituals are not used to eliminate the natural desires of man, but rather to nourish those desires and establish semblances of order in life. "Gentlemen consider them to be art of the way of man; common people think they have something to do with ghosts."(Ebrey)

[[File:Mencius_rival.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mencius, the fellow student of Confucius and philosophical rival of Xunzi]]

When my philosophical rival Mencius sought to argue that the nature of man was good, not evil as I have always indicated, I explained to him that if that were true there would be no need for the institution of rituals and duties which the sages of old established and that we require these in order to control and reign in our innate tendencies for evil.

I was able to firmly establish the veracity of my claim against the misguided thinking of Mencius and other philosophers when I stated that:

"Man's nature is evil; goodness is the result of conscious activity. The nature of man is such that he is born with a fondness for profit. If he indulges this fondness, it will lead him into wrangling and strife, and all sense of courtesy and humility will disappear. He is born with feelings of envy and hate, and if he indulges these, they will lead him into violence and crime, and all sense of loyalty and good faith will disappear. Man is born with the desires of the eyes and ears, with a fondness for beautiful sights and sounds. If he indulges these, they will lead him into licence and wantonness, and all ritual principles and correct forms will be lost. Hence, any man who follows his nature and indulges his emotions will inevitably become involved in wrangling and strife, will violate the forms and rules of society, and will end as a criminal."(Theosophy Library Online)

I said this because I firmly believe that a society is only as perfect as the sum of the moral and spiritual attainments of its people. Certainly no one, including Mencius, can refute that.

==== Contemporary Commentary ====
Xunzi's view on Human Nature has been very controversial for many people because they think that he is somehow degrading the status of what it means to be human. In fact, when he says that human nature is to be "evil" he does not actually mean to demonize humanity, but rather to highlight the natural tendencies towards chaos, contention, and other complications when there is no established order or authority. Humanity naturally seeks out leaders, authority figures, and order when there is chaos.

=== Government and Politics ===
Quite obviously, the philosophical standard in reference to government during the Warring States Period was monarchy. I taught during my lifetime that the government should have a paternal relationship with its people in the sense that they provided the means for success through the performance of rituals, and the people respond with loyalty. I believe that the best government is one based on a society with strong social distinctions because it is through hierarchy that limits are established and control over human nature can be maintained. I believe that equality among everyone in a society is a grave mistake because it creates an environment for competition and contention. If all the people stand on equal ground, their desires will all be the same and they will naturally compete to attain those desires. Strict hierarchy must be at the foundation of every government and society because it reminds everyone of their role and responsibility, thus eliminating the possibilities for conflict. People will freely subjugate themselves to the best governments because they will recognize the order and peace that has been accomplished. (Elstein)

The basic structure of hierarchy according to my system had lower peasant classes that were responsible for common labor, the 'junzi' or gentlemen who oversaw the lower classes, and the 'ru' who were the erudite men of status. The 'ru' were principally responsible for the execution and application of the 'li-yi' or rituals and duties, in order to reiterate their status and authority as leaders and rulers in society. This hierarchy serves as the foundation for the most efficient and best functioning government.

The worst governments are those that have been established through military force and violence because their foundation is fear and death, not order and structure. In truth, I was a political realist. I taught to dismiss those who are incompetent, promote those who are worthy, punish the evil, transform the ordinary, and anyone that uses talents against the good of the people should put to death. Punishments are not desirable, but are necessary when individuals threaten the hierarchy or order of a people. The emperor should not rely on outer force, but should strengthen inner power. Lords should preserve and protect subjects and be respectful towards other lords. A ruler should regulate affairs, have several rates of taxation, and unify commerce so that all can prosper. The role of government is to be very involved in the lives of the people so that order can be maintained.

Hierarchy and status do not mean that I believed in hereditary privilege or leadership positions based on birthright or wealth. I saw the value and virtue of a man as defined by his literacy and education, especially in regards to his adherence to the Way as the determining factor for good leadership. Those entrusted with leadership are required to uphold the essential rituals of society. I taught that "the scholar-officials who are to govern that society have as their primary function the preservation and transmission of these ritual practices."(Sampaolo, Stefan and Zhu) Religious rituals were allowed in society "only to the extent that they reaffirmed human interdependence and social solidarity, but were to be outlawed when the goals were power and salvation."(Theosophy Library Online)

== My Legacy ==
Because my ideal society was never truly established I died considering myself a failure, however, I never lived to see my philosophies achieve their potential. Two of my most well-known pupils became very influential philosophers in the establishment of the unification of China and the future culture of that nation. Li Si, one of my best students became one of the intellectual architects of the Qin unification. Han Feizi, was another scholar who was influenced by my teachings though many of his philosophies differed from my own. The continued study of my text as well as what was added to it after my death but written about my actions and teachings, perpetuated my influence over hundreds of years and make it so my work is still considered relevant in many ways today. Though my teacher Confucius is more widely known, and rightly so, I feel that his ideas only appeal to the masses because they are remained under-developed and open to interpretation. My fellow pupil and rival Mencius is probably more popular because of his supposed "positive" view of humanity than mine, however, I still assert that he misses the mark on many of his theories. I know that I am not as well known to the general public, but once people read and begin to understand my work they will comprehend the depth and intricacy of my arguments.(P. B. Ebrey, p.51)

=== Presentation for Classroom Use ===
[[Media:Xunzi.pptx]]

== References ==
de Bary, WM. Theodore & Bloom, Irene. Sources of Chinese tradition, vol 1, 2nd ed. Columbia University Press, 1999 New York.
Pages 159-183

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History. London: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Ebrey, Patricia. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook 2d ed. New York: Free Press, 1993. pp. 24-26.

Elstein, David. Xunzi (Hsün Tzu, c.310—c.220 BCE). 30 August 2004. http://www.iep.utm.edu/xunzi/. 27 February 2013.

Robins, Dan. Xunzi. 13 February 2007. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/xunzi/#humans. 27 February 2013.

Sampaolo, Marco, Matt Stefan and Rishon Zhu. "Xunzi." 2013. Encyclopaedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/274068/Xunzi. 27 February 2013.

Theosophy Library Online. Hsun Tzu. 2000. http://web.archive.org/web/20051215105300/http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/teachers/HsunTzu.htm. 27 February 2013.

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-16T05:16:59Z

Christopher W:

China and Europe's relationship in the 17th century was significan for the fact that for the first time European and Chinese economic ties significantly influenced the ability for both to effectively function. Europes demand for Chinese goods drastically altered the Chinese economy to a more market based economy. Not only were their economies affected by their contact, but both the Europeans and Chinese religious, social and political perspectives were challenged by their seemingly conflicting views.
[[File:Still-Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar.jpg | 300px|left|thumb|Oil painting by Willem Kalf titled Still Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar. Painted in 1669. Photo by JarektUploadBot. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Willem_Kalf_-_Still-Life_with_a_Late_Ming_Ginger_Jar_-_WGA12080.jpg] for orginial source.]]
==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Photo by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190,216)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

Despite the problems that Jesuit missionaries faced during the transition from the Ming to the Qin dynasty, they were able to gain favor once again under the rule of the second Ming emporor, Kangxi. Jesuits were even given appointments as directors over the Imperial board of Astronomy under Kangxi's rule. Kangxi issued an edict tolerating Christianity in China but revoked it after a confrontation with a Catholic legate Maillard de Tournon.

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|left|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

Following Nurhaci, Kangxi came to power and ruled from 1662-1722. His longevity allowed for stability to be reestablished in China, much as had been promised by Nurhaci to the gentry, because of this stability Kangxi was able win over the gentry as he helped reassert their stations within society. He also sought to bring the Chinese Literati into the government. Most importantly for Chinese-European relations, Kangxi was interested in Western science, mathematics, and mechanical devices. (Ebrey, 224) Kangxi found ways to bring Western science to China through means such as Jesuit missionaries.

In 1689, the Qing signed the first of a series of treaties with Russia that ignored the longstanding custom of implementing a tribute system. This was significant, because it showed that the Qing were willing to depart from the less effective Chinese policies that had handicapped the Ming and led to their eventual downfall as a dynasty.

==Presentation==
[[Media:17th_Century_China_and_Europe.pptx]]

==See Also==
*[[Ming Dynasty]]

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-16T05:15:01Z

Christopher W:

China and Europe's relationship in the 17th century was significan for the fact that for the first time European and Chinese economic ties significantly influenced the ability for both to effectively function. Europes demand for Chinese goods drastically altered the Chinese economy to a more market based economy. Not only were their economies affected by their contact, but both the Europeans and Chinese religious, social and political perspectives were challenged by their seemingly conflicting views.
[[File:Still-Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar.jpg | 300px|left|thumb|Oil painting by Willem Kalf titled Still Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar. Painted in 1669. Photo by JarektUploadBot. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Willem_Kalf_-_Still-Life_with_a_Late_Ming_Ginger_Jar_-_WGA12080.jpg] for orginial source.]]
==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Photo by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190,216)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

Despite the problems that Jesuit missionaries faced during the transition from the Ming to the Qin dynasty, they were able to gain favor once again under the rule of the second Ming emporor, Kangxi. Jesuits were even given appointments as directors over the Imperial board of Astronomy under Kangxi's rule. Kangxi issued an edict tolerating Christianity in China but revoked it after a confrontation with a Catholic legate Maillard de Tournon.

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|left|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

Following Nurhaci, Kangxi came to power and ruled from 1662-1722. His longevity allowed for stability to be reestablished in China, much as had been promised by Nurhaci to the gentry, because of this stability Kangxi was able win over the gentry as he helped reassert their stations within society. He also sought to bring the Chinese Literati into the government. Most importantly for Chinese-European relations, Kangxi was interested in Western science, mathematics, and mechanical devices. (Ebrey, 224) Kangxi found ways to bring Western science to China through means such as Jesuit missionaries.

In 1689, the Qing signed the first of a series of treaties with Russia that ignored the longstanding custom of implementing a tribute system. This was significant, because it showed that the Qing were willing to depart from the less effective Chinese policies that had handicapped the Ming and led to their eventual downfall as a dynasty.

==Presentation==
[[Media:17th_Century_China_and_Europe.pptx]]

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

File:17th Century China and Europe.pptx

2013-04-16T05:12:31Z

Christopher W: Presentation on Chinese and European relations in the 17th Century.

Presentation on Chinese and European relations in the 17th Century.

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T10:38:58Z

Christopher W:

China and Europe's relationship in the 17th century was significan for the fact that for the first time European and Chinese economic ties significantly influenced the ability for both to effectively function. Europes demand for Chinese goods drastically altered the Chinese economy to a more market based economy. Not only were their economies affected by their contact, but both the Europeans and Chinese religious, social and political perspectives were challenged by their seemingly conflicting views.
[[File:Still-Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar.jpg | 300px|left|thumb|Oil painting by Willem Kalf titled Still Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar. Painted in 1669. Photo by JarektUploadBot. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Willem_Kalf_-_Still-Life_with_a_Late_Ming_Ginger_Jar_-_WGA12080.jpg] for orginial source.]]
==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Photo by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190,216)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

Despite the problems that Jesuit missionaries faced during the transition from the Ming to the Qin dynasty, they were able to gain favor once again under the rule of the second Ming emporor, Kangxi. Jesuits were even given appointments as directors over the Imperial board of Astronomy under Kangxi's rule. Kangxi issued an edict tolerating Christianity in China but revoked it after a confrontation with a Catholic legate Maillard de Tournon.

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|left|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

Following Nurhaci, Kangxi came to power and ruled from 1662-1722. His longevity allowed for stability to be reestablished in China, much as had been promised by Nurhaci to the gentry, because of this stability Kangxi was able win over the gentry as he helped reassert their stations within society. He also sought to bring the Chinese Literati into the government. Most importantly for Chinese-European relations, Kangxi was interested in Western science, mathematics, and mechanical devices. (Ebrey, 224) Kangxi found ways to bring Western science to China through means such as Jesuit missionaries.

In 1689, the Qing signed the first of a series of treaties with Russia that ignored the longstanding custom of implementing a tribute system. This was significant, because it showed that the Qing were willing to depart from the less effective Chinese policies that had handicapped the Ming and led to their eventual downfall as a dynasty.

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

File:Still-Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar.jpg

2013-04-07T10:25:53Z

Christopher W: Oil painting by Wille Kalf titled Still Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar. Painted in 1669.

Oil painting by Wille Kalf titled Still Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar. Painted in 1669.

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T10:19:28Z

Christopher W: /* The Qing Dynasty */

==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190,216)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

Despite the problems that Jesuit missionaries faced during the transition from the Ming to the Qin dynasty, they were able to gain favor once again under the rule of the second Ming emporor, Kangxi. Jesuits were even given appointments as directors over the Imperial board of Astronomy under Kangxi's rule. Kangxi issued an edict tolerating Christianity in China but revoked it after a confrontation with a Catholic legate Maillard de Tournon.

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|left|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

Following Nurhaci, Kangxi came to power and ruled from 1662-1722. His longevity allowed for stability to be reestablished in China, much as had been promised by Nurhaci to the gentry, because of this stability Kangxi was able win over the gentry as he helped reassert their stations within society. He also sought to bring the Chinese Literati into the government. Most importantly for Chinese-European relations, Kangxi was interested in Western science, mathematics, and mechanical devices. (Ebrey, 224) Kangxi found ways to bring Western science to China through means such as Jesuit missionaries.

In 1689, the Qing signed the first of a series of treaties with Russia that ignored the longstanding custom of implementing a tribute system. This was significant, because it showed that the Qing were willing to depart from the less effective Chinese policies that had handicapped the Ming and led to their eventual downfall as a dynasty.

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T10:19:06Z

Christopher W: /* The Qing Dynasty */

==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190,216)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

Despite the problems that Jesuit missionaries faced during the transition from the Ming to the Qin dynasty, they were able to gain favor once again under the rule of the second Ming emporor, Kangxi. Jesuits were even given appointments as directors over the Imperial board of Astronomy under Kangxi's rule. Kangxi issued an edict tolerating Christianity in China but revoked it after a confrontation with a Catholic legate Maillard de Tournon.

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|right|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

Following Nurhaci, Kangxi came to power and ruled from 1662-1722. His longevity allowed for stability to be reestablished in China, much as had been promised by Nurhaci to the gentry, because of this stability Kangxi was able win over the gentry as he helped reassert their stations within society. He also sought to bring the Chinese Literati into the government. Most importantly for Chinese-European relations, Kangxi was interested in Western science, mathematics, and mechanical devices. (Ebrey, 224) Kangxi found ways to bring Western science to China through means such as Jesuit missionaries.

In 1689, the Qing signed the first of a series of treaties with Russia that ignored the longstanding custom of implementing a tribute system. This was significant, because it showed that the Qing were willing to depart from the less effective Chinese policies that had handicapped the Ming and led to their eventual downfall as a dynasty.

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T10:13:48Z

Christopher W: /* Jesuit Missionary Work in China */

==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190,216)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

Despite the problems that Jesuit missionaries faced during the transition from the Ming to the Qin dynasty, they were able to gain favor once again under the rule of the second Ming emporor, Kangxi. Jesuits were even given appointments as directors over the Imperial board of Astronomy under Kangxi's rule. Kangxi issued an edict tolerating Christianity in China but revoked it after a confrontation with a Catholic legate Maillard de Tournon.

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|right|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

Following Nurhaci, Kangxi came to power and ruled from 1662-1722. His longevity allowed for stability to be reestablished in China, much as had been promised by Nurhaci to the gentry, because of this stability Kangxi was able win over the gentry as he helped reassert their stations within society. He also sought to bring the Chinese Literati into the government. Most importantly for Chinese-European relations, Kangxi was interested in Western science, mathematics, and mechanical devices. (Ebrey, 224)

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T10:08:54Z

Christopher W: /* The Qing Dynasty */

==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190,216)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|right|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

Following Nurhaci, Kangxi came to power and ruled from 1662-1722. His longevity allowed for stability to be reestablished in China, much as had been promised by Nurhaci to the gentry, because of this stability Kangxi was able win over the gentry as he helped reassert their stations within society. He also sought to bring the Chinese Literati into the government. Most importantly for Chinese-European relations, Kangxi was interested in Western science, mathematics, and mechanical devices. (Ebrey, 224)

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T09:34:07Z

Christopher W: /* The Ming Dynasty */

==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190,216)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|right|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T09:33:40Z

Christopher W: /* The Ming Dynasty */

==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190-216)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|right|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T09:31:55Z

Christopher W: /* The Ming Dynasty */

==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|right|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|right|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T09:31:39Z

Christopher W: /* The Ming Dynasty */

==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|center|thumb|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|right|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T09:31:09Z

Christopher W: /* The Ming Dynasty */

==The Ming Dynasty==
[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|thumb|Left|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190)

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|right|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).

17th Century China and Europe

2013-04-07T09:30:34Z

Christopher W: /* The Ming Dynasty */

==The Ming Dynasty==
The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190)

[[File:China_Ming_1580.jpg |300px|thumb|Left|Map of Ming Dynasty. Phono by Kallgan. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Ming_1580.jpg] for original source.]]

==Europe in the 17th Century==
Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

[[File:Dutch East Indies.jpg ‎|300px|thumb|left|The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_%27Pieter_and_Paul%27_on_the_IJ_in_Amsterdam_in_1698_(Abraham_Storck).jpg]for original source.]]

==Fiscal Collapse==
Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself.
Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns.
Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)
[[File:China Europe population 1000-1975 svg.png ‎|300px|thumb|center|Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:China_Europe_population_1000-1975.svg]for original source.]]
China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades.
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

==Jesuit Missionary Work in China==
[[File:Matteo_Ricci.jpg |250px|left|thumb|Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg] for original source.]]

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian.
With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

==Chinese Porcelain==
[[File:Blue and white porcelain with Chinese scene.jpg |250px|thumb|Right|Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_and_white_porcelain_with_Chinese_scene_Nevers_Manufactory_France_end_of_the_17th_century.jpg] for original source.]]
The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

==The Qing Dynasty==
After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.
[[File:Nurhaci.jpg |200px|right|thumb|Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E5%A4%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg] for original source.]]

==References==

*Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
*Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
*Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
*Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

*Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).