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2020-12-26T11:17:17Z

Han Haiyang: /* Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

----
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 trans

2020-12-26T11:09:14Z

Han Haiyang: /* Han Haiyang 韩海洋 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

----
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

History of Translation Studies 14

2020-12-21T14:35:32Z

Han Haiyang: /* Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang */

='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=

==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing 英美文学==
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center>
===Abstract===
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.

===Key word===
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory

===题目===
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译

===摘要===
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。

===关键词===
文化负载词，李清照，目的论

===Introduction===
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)

===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)

She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)

====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)

Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如梦令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点绛唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减字木兰花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采桑子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)

To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)

===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====

Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)

In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)

In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)

In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term“translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).

====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)

The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)

Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)

===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58).

Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)

====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====
=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====
Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)

For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)

Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)

=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====

Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)

=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====

The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)

=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)

=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====
Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)

===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===

Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)

====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====

(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）

I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)

O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)

Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)

(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）

I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)

I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)

In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)

====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====

(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)

I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)

I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)

The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)

(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)

My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)

I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)

Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree.
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)

====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====

(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)

The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)

People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)

Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)

(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)

The Double Ninth comes now again.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)

Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)

“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)

====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====

(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)

In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)

I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)

As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)

(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)

You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,

The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)

Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)

In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)

====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====

(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)

I look for what I miss;

I know not what it is.

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)

Search. Search. Seek. Seek.

Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.

Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)

Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149)

(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)

A grizzling wind and drizzling rain

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)

Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)

In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)

===Conclusion===
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. ((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)

Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)

===References===
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

*Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.

*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.

*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.

* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.

*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.

*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.

* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.

*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.

*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.

*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.

*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.

*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.

*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.

*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.

--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 MTI 英语笔译==
<center>蒋淇玮, 202070080592.</center>

===Abstract===

''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.

Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.

Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.

Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.

By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.

This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.

Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.

===Key Words===

domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words

===摘要===

《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。

沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。

通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。

因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。

===关键词===

归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词

===Chapter One Introduction===

With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used around the globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)

However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)

''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)

Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest to the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)

Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)

===Chapter Two Literature Review===

====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)

=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)

Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)

The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on a stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with a movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)

This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)

Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)

=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)

Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and the unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)

In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)

====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)

This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carrying in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)

In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)

From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.

To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words=====
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)

In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)

===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===

====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====3.1.1 Free Translation=====
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase=====
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）

1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)

The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.

====3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation====
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）

2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)

“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.

====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====3.2.1 Transliteration=====
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）

3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)

The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.

=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）

4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)

“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.

=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）

5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)

“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.

====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies====
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===

====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）

6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)

The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.

7a. 粉颈（沈复，2018：8）

7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)

In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.

======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）

8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)

This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.

====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）

9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)

“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.

10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）

10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)

“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.

=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）

11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)

The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.

=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）

12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)

In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.

13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）

13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)

“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.

===Chapter Five Conclusion===

Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)

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==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==

===Abstract===
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)

Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible.

This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication

idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===

===摘要===
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）

本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。

===关键词===
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化

=== Introduction===
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)

An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)

Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.

The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)

Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)

The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)

Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)

Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)

For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)

Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)

Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)

For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)

====2.3 Different religious beliefs====
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了

The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)

===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995).

Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105)

In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)

====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)

The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)

Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)

That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)

Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture.

====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)

Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)

Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)

Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)

However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)

For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)

One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12)

The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)

However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)

In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Bibliography===
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】

*He Fang 贺芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]

*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].

*Jiang Lei 蒋磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].

*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].

*Wang Tao 王涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].

*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].

*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].

*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20

*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang 英美文学==

===Abstract===
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.

===Key Words===
proverbs; culture; translation strategies

===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===

===摘要===
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。

===关键词===
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法

===1. Introduction===
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.

Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.

With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.

Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization

===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===

====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)

Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)

1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most

Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)

1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home

In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003).

Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.It is said that proverbs in China dated back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)

====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”

1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs

Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language.

Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society.

What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)

1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs

As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning.

Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing.

Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)

From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.

====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====

It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms.

Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)

As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)

Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31)

In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.

===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===

====2.1 Definition of Culture====

As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” .

While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)

====2.2 Language and Proverb====

It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.

====2.3 Value and proverbs====

Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)

Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve.
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)

====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====

Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)

It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)

They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)

====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====

Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)

Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs.

In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)

Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation.

===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===

Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture.

The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)

====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====

Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor.

As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).

In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)

====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====

As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness.

As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before

In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)

For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture.

Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)

===4. Conclusion===

Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process.

Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation.

Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.

In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 15:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. References===
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*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .
*You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.
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==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==

==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 MTI 英语口译</center>

===Abstract===

With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.

On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.

===Key Words===

Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies

===题目===

跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究

===摘要===

随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。

一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。

===关键词===

汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略

===Introduction===

With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared.

Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.

===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===

Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote the transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)

To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics. Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)

====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====

Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)

With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)

Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)

First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)

Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)

Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)

With new things springing up, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)

A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)

The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)

In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)

====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====

In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)

Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)

We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)

The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)

With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)

===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===

As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）

====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====

Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)

In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)

Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)

In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.(Jing Huang 2019,433)

====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====

The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but also cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)

=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====

Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)

In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)

=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====

Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)

It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)

=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====

Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)

For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)

===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===

To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)

Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)

Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)

Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)

====3.1 Transliteration====

Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)

For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)

====3.2 Literal Translation====

Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)

The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)

In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)

====3.3 Free Translation====

Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)

For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)

===Conclusion===

The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)

In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)

In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)

To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)

Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)

Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)

In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)

===References===

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*Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.

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*Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

*Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.

*Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.

*Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning

*Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies

*Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology

*Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University

*Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China

*Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press

*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''

*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''

--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Translation of Dish Names'''=

==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo 英美文学==
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center>

=== Abstract ===

With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)

=== Keywords ===

Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence

=== 题目 ===
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译

=== 摘要 ===

中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。

=== 关键词 ===

中译英；中国菜名；功能对等

=== Introduction ===

As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)

It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)

The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)

And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)

=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===

Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)

Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)

Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)

They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)

=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===

(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names

Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)

As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)

Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)

Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13)

The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)

After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)

But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)

Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019，6）

(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds

The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)

Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)

夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)

=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===

Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)

Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)

The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)

Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)

In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126）

Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)

Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)

Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)

=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===

4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine

Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)

Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)

It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine

First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)

One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)

Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

=== Conclusion ===

With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)

There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)

=== References ===

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*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.

*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.

*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.

*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.

*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.

*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.

*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].

*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].

*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.

*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].

*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].

*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.

*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].

--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 13:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center>
===Abstract===
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.

Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names

===题目===
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例

===摘要===
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。

===关键词===
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名

===Introduction===
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===

====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)

Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)

Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)

According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)

According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)

====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:

First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.

Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.

A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.

Informative Function

The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)

Aesthetic Function

If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)

If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Cultural Function

Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)

===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===

====2.1 Differences of Thinking====
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)

There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)

Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)

Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.

As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)

As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)

====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)

====2.5 Absence of Terms====
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)

====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)

Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)

Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)

The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)

In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)

In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)

The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)

The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)

The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)

====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)

====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)

Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)

Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.

A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.

===References===
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.

[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95

[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.

[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220

[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.

[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13

[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]

[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.

[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33

[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan Cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651 俄语语言文学.</center>
===Abstract===
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses the above two different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can't remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchanges and dissemination.

===Key words===
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication

===题目===
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例

===摘要===
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用上述不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能扫除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。

===关键词===
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流

===1. Introduction===
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture emerged on the international stage and gradually has gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In modern society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape. However, at present we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the cross-cultural communication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)

中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。中国菜名含有丰富的文化与艺术特征，其体现了中国文化图景。然而，目前中国菜名译本众多，这不利于跨文化交流。

It's known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritages, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the researches on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)

归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。

However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies. Therefore, in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan cuisine. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)

然而，首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）

===2. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of cultural connotations of Chinese dishes. These problems make foreigners and some Chinese English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)

中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，中国英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)

====2.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can't express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny.(Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。

For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn't reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, he knocked off the mud shell. The aroma overflowed, and it became a delicious dish. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。

Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn't reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)

====2.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation version is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation version is more vivid and can make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish.(Lin Hong 1991, 41)

目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人带来不便与麻烦，影响中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。

There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotations of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)

“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)

====2.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====
The differences between Chinese and western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)

中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。

For example, "onion soup in French style"(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, a snake is compared to a dragon, and a chicken - a phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)

比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。

The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don't understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find these translations very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)

“年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)

To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural connotations of dish names and using inappropriate translation methods. In this chapter I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduce the above two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)

以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)

===3. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===

====3.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book "Translator's Invisibility" according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30)

“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30)

Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation.（Su Songlonghua 2011）

归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。

Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text, which means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, to preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）

异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）

====3.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. On the one hand, on the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of reader-oriented characteristics domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement.(Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46)

谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。

On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and in this aspect its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communications, so it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)

另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。

Therefore, on the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication on the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization on the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)

因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）

Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, we should use habitual expressions of readers and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. (Su Songlonghua 2011)

从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变）。( 百度百科宿松龙华 2011)

===4. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===

====4.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, and it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)

湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)

=====4.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat and chicken; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸).(Chen Wei 2007, 108)

写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。

The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒炒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)

常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒炒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)

=====4.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of dishes. This type of dishes contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, expresses good wishes for auspiciousness and has Chinese characteristics. They are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes. They have distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)

写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)

According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine, as well as the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, the use of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation strategies of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. Translation strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritages. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)

根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)

====4.2 On the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====
Domestication on the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names on different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of Chinese dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)

=====4.2.1 Domestication on Lexical Level=====
“童子鸡”can be translated as "Tender chicken"(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can't be translated as "chicken without sexual life"(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasizes that the chicken is tender and tastes very good. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the translation strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word "Tender" is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding.(Lin Hong 1991, 41)

“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。(Lin Hong 1991, 41)

This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. "Shredded pork with garlic sauce or fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce"(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The "fish fragrance"(鱼香) of this dish doesn't refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled peppers, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)

这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)

In addition, pinyin (拼音) can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)

=====4.2.2 Domestication on Semantic Level=====
Domestication on semantic level is conducive to convey the meanings of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as "two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)". From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。（张扬 2016，48）

In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfishes, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of this dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as "goldfish plays with lotus" with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, "oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean"(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of "floating lotus"(浮莲).(Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)

又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。

Similar examples include "stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch" (全家福), "hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup" (蝴蝶飘海) and "steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar"(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)

类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)

=====4.2.3 Domestication on Grammatical Level=====
The domestication of Hunan cuisine on the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of Chinese dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in their English translations. Such as "Dongting spicy salted duck"(洞庭酱板鸭), "Dongting barbecued mandarin fish"(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and "fried winter bamboo shoots"(油辣冬笋尖).(Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。

Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as "preserved eggs with hot pepper"(尖椒皮蛋),"fragments of garlic bolt without using knife"(手撕蒜苗), "Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear" (永州血鸭) and "braised pig knuckle in brown sauce" (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)

====4.3 On the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====
As we all know, the exchanges of food culture in cross-cultural communication are closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and arts. They have profound cultural heritages and aesthetic values. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. When people understand their cultural backgrounds, they can better understand the meanings of those dishes. On the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement help to inform customers of the taste, cooking methods and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes.(Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)

众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景后能更好地理解菜名的含义。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。

In my opinion, the use of foreignization to translate Chinese food should first understand the characteristics of the naming of western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and western dishes, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese dish names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary backgrounds of these dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)

我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)

=====4.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====
以典故、传说命名的菜肴
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and western dishes. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.(operations12, 2008)

中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。

“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation "Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)" points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance.(operations12, 2008)

“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)

“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It's said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles, rush and scold them every day: "You damn ducks, you are like bandits!" She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: "What kind of dish? Wild ducks!" Since then this dish has become famous. If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as "Brigand in Xiangxi ducks", it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into "Xiangxi wild ducks" not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of this dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)

“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)

=====4.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====
There are usually two translation methods for the dish names with a person's name and a place name in western dishes: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".(zzpingic1130, 2010)

西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。

“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian county, Hunan province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of this dish is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian county. (zzpingic1130, 2010)

“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)

“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as "pagoda fragrant waist"(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it doesn't show the beauty of this dish visually "step by step"(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as "Yulin's best homely dish". According to the legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. "Peng Yulin's best family banquet dish"(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called "touwan"(头碗,the first dish). The English translation of this dish implies "top"(顶级，最好). It seems to mean "to reach the highest level"(登塔至级). Translation of "Yulin's best homely dish" not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）

“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）

====4.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain their cultural connotations, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14)

采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。

Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meanings of them.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14)

第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。

Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into "Fotiaoqiang" or "Buddha jumping the wall", it doesn't reflect the essence of this dish. "Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark's fin and fish maw in broth" is more appropriate, but not concise enough.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14)

第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。

Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word "burn"(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: "fried prawns with pepper sauce" and "braised pork with brown sauce". The cooking method of the first dish is "fried"(煎), and the second dish - "stewed"（炖）.（Zhang Yang 2016,48）

第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）

===5. Conclusion===
Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable references for future researches on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)

尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛，张瑜 2009, 58)

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*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.
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--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 14

2020-12-21T07:52:24Z

Han Haiyang: /* Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang */

='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=

==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center>
===Abstract===
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.

===Key word===
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory

===题目===
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译

===摘要===
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。

===关键词===
文化负载词，李清照，目的论

===Introduction===
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)

===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)

She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)

====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)

Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如梦令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点绛唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减字木兰花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采桑子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)

To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)

===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====

Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)

In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)

In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)

In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term“translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).

====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)

The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)

Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)

===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58).

Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)

====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====
=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====
Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)

For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)

Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)

=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====

Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)

=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====

The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)

=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)

=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====
Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)

===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===

Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)

====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====

(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）

I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)

O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)

Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)

(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）

I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)

I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)

In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)

====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====

(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)

I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)

I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)

The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)

(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)

My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)

I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)

Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree.
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)

====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====

(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)

The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)

People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)

Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)

(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)

The Double Ninth comes now again.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)

Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)

“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)

====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====

(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)

In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)

I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)

As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)

(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)

You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,

The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)

Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)

In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)

====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====

(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)

I look for what I miss;

I know not what it is.

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)

Search. Search. Seek. Seek.

Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.

Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)

Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149)

(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)

A grizzling wind and drizzling rain

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)

Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)

In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)

===Conclusion===
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. ((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)

Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)

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*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.

* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.

*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.

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* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.

*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.

*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.

*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.

*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.

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*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.

--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.

Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.

Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.

Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.

By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.

This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.

Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.

===Key Words===

domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words

===摘要===

《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。

沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。

通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。

因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。

===关键词===

归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词

===Chapter One Introduction===

With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used around the globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)

However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)

''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)

Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest to the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)

Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)

===Chapter Two Literature Review===

====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)

=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)

Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)

The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on a stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with a movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)

This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)

Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)

=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)

Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and the unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)

In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)

====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)

This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carrying in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)

In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)

From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.

To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words=====
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)

In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)

===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===

====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====3.1.1 Free Translation=====
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase=====
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）

1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)

The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.

====3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation====
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）

2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)

“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.

====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====3.2.1 Transliteration=====
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）

3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)

The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.

=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）

4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)

“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.

=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）

5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)

“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.

====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies====
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===

====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）

6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)

The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.

7a. 粉颈（沈复，2018：8）

7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)

In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.

======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）

8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)

This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.

====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）

9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)

“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.

10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）

10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)

“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.

=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）

11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)

The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.

=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）

12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)

In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.

13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）

13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)

“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.

===Chapter Five Conclusion===

Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)

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==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==

===Abstract===
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)

Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible.

This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication

idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===

===摘要===
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）

本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。

===关键词===
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化

=== Introduction===
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)

An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)

Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.

The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)

Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)

The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)

Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)

Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)

For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)

Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)

Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)

For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)

====2.3 Different religious beliefs====
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了

The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)

===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995).

Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105)

In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)

====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)

The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)

Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)

That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)

Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture.

====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)

Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)

Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)

Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)

However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)

For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)

One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12)

The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)

However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)

In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Bibliography===
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】

*He Fang 贺芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]

*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].

*Jiang Lei 蒋磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].

*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].

*Wang Tao 王涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].

*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].

*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].

*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20

*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==

===Abstract===
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.

===Key Words===
proverbs; culture; translation strategies

===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===

===摘要===
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。

===关键词===
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法

===1. Introduction===
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.

Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.

With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.

Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization

===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===

====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)

Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)

1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most

Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)

1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home

In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003).

Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.It is said that proverbs in China dated back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)

====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”

1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs

Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language.

Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society.

What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)

1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs

As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning.

Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing.

Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)

From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.

====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====

It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms.

Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)

As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)

Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31)

In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.

===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===

====2.1 Definition of Culture====

As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” .

While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)

====2.2 Language and Proverb====

It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.

====2.3 Value and proverbs====

Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)

Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve.
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)

====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====

Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)

It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)

They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)

====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====

Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)

Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs.

In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)

Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation.

===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===

Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture.

The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)

====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====

Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor.

As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).

In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)

====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====

As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness.

As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before

In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)

For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture.

Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)

===4. Conclusion===

Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process.

Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation.

Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.

In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 15:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. References===
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*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .
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==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==

==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center>

===Abstract===

With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.

On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.

===Key Words===

Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies

===题目===

跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究

===摘要===

随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。

一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。

===关键词===

汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略

===Introduction===

With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared.

Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.

===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===

Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote the transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)

To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics. Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)

====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====

Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)

With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)

Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)

First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)

Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)

Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)

With new things springing up, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)

A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)

The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)

In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)

====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====

In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)

Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)

We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)

The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)

With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)

===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===

As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）

====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====

Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)

In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)

Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)

In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.(Jing Huang 2019,433)

====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====

The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but also cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)

=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====

Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)

In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)

=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====

Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)

It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)

=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====

Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)

For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)

===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===

To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)

Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)

Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)

Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)

====3.1 Transliteration====

Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)

For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)

====3.2 Literal Translation====

Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)

The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)

In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)

====3.3 Free Translation====

Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)

For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)

===Conclusion===

The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)

In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)

In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)

To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)

Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)

Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)

In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)

===References===

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*Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.

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*Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

*Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.

*Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.

*Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning

*Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies

*Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology

*Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University

*Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China

*Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press

*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''

*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''

--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Translation of Dish Names'''=

==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center>

=== Abstract ===

With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)

=== Keywords ===

Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence

=== 题目 ===
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译

=== 摘要 ===

中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。

=== 关键词 ===

中译英；中国菜名；功能对等

=== Introduction ===

As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)

It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)

The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)

And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)

=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===

Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)

Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)

Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)

They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)

=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===

(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names

Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)

As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)

Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)

Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13)

The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)

After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)

But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)

Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019，6）

(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds

The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)

Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)

夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)

=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===

Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)

Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)

The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)

Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)

In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126）

Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)

Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)

Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)

=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===

4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine

Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)

Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)

It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine

First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)

One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)

Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

=== Conclusion ===

With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)

There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)

=== References ===

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*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.

*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.

*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.

*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.

*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.

*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.

*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].

*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].

*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.

*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].

*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].

*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.

*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].

--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 13:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center>
===Abstract===
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.

Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names

===题目===
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例

===摘要===
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。

===关键词===
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名

===Introduction===
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===

====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)

Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)

Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)

According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)

According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)

====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:

First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.

Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.

A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.

Informative Function

The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)

Aesthetic Function

If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)

If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Cultural Function

Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)

===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===

====2.1 Differences of Thinking====
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)

There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)

Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)

Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.

As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)

As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)

====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)

====2.5 Absence of Terms====
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)

====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)

Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)

Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)

The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)

In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)

In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)

The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)

The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)

The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)

====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)

====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)

Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)

Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.

A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.

===References===
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[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95

[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.

[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220

[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.

[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13

[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]

[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.

[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan Cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center>
===Abstract===
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.

===Key words===
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication

===题目===
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例

===摘要===
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用上述不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能扫除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。

===关键词===
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流

===Introduction===
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In modern society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape. However, at present we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to cross-cultural communication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)

中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。中国菜名含有丰富的文化与艺术特征，其体现了中国文化图景。然而，目前中国菜名译本众多，这不利于跨文化交流。

It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)

归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。

However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies. Therefore, in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)

然而，首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）

===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some Chinese English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)

中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，中国英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)

====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can't express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny.(Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。

For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn't reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, he knocked off the mud shell. The aroma overflowed, and it became a delicious dish. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。

Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)

====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is more vivid and can make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish.(Lin Hong 1991, 41)

目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。

There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotations of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)

“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)

====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)

中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。

For example, "onion soup in French style"(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, a snake is compared to a dragon, and a chicken to a phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)

比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。

The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don't understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)

“年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)

To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural connotations of dish names and using inappropriate translation methods. In this chapter I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduce the above two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)

以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)

===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===

====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book "Translator's Invisibility" according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30)

“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30)

Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation.（Su Songlonghua 2011）

归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。

Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text, which means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, to preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）

异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）

====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of reader-oriented characteristics domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement.(Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46)

谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。

On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communications, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)

另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。

Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)

因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）

Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, we should use habitual expressions of readers and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. (Su Songlonghua 2011)

从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变）。( 百度百科宿松龙华 2011)

===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===

====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)

As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)

=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)

Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)

=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)

There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)

According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)

According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)

====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)

=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)

“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)

In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)

=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)

Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。（张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)

=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)

====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)

As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)

=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====
以典故、传说命名的菜肴
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)

There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)

“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)

“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)

=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====
带地名和人名的菜名
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)

There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)

“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）

“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）

====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）

Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）

===Conclusion===
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)

Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛，张瑜 2009, 58)

===References===
*Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.
*Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].
*Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.
*Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.
*Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. "Baidu Encyclopedia". https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.
*Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.
*Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.
*Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.
*Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].
*Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of "Translation Strategies", "Translation Methods" and "Translation Skills"]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.
*Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.
*Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.
*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.
*Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.
*Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.
*Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.

History of Translation Studies 6

2020-12-20T15:45:54Z

Han Haiyang: /* Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=

==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.

==='''Key words'''===
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches

==='''摘要'''===
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。

==='''关键词'''===
归化；异化；功能派理论

==='''Introduction'''===
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.

In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.

From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).

According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).

Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)

To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118)

Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165)

The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.

While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness.

Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies

Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.

While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===
====Skopos Theory====
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.

The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.

According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Theory of Translational Action====
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Text Typology====
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator.
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.

There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” .

Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation.

The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Translational Action====
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.

As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.

In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)

These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.

Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers.

Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:

余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:

其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.

The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Text Typology====
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)

Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on.

Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding.

On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38)

The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation.

Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.

Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication.

From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation.

In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.

2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.

3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.

4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.

5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.

6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.

7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.

9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.

10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.

11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.

13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.

14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.

15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.

16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.

17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.

19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center>
===Abstract===
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.

For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

===Key words===
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works

===题目===
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用

===摘要===
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。

===关键词===
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品

===Chapter1 Introduction===
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).

Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).

Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature.

Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).
=====1. Literature Review=====
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.

Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.

Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the "Chinese Literature Today" magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.

Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution.

Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”.

Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that "Elegance" is more important than "Faithfulness" and "Expressiveness", and "Faithfulness" cannot be ignored by "Elegance".--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars.

Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's "loyalty" and "infidelity" in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the "creative treason" in translation from Howard's "Big Breasts" and "Big Buttocks". Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's "loyalty" and "treason" when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as "The Legend of Hulan River", "Turbulence", "Six Chapters of My Life", "Red Sorghum" and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works.

Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.

===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102)

Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51).

Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.

Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work.

Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work "Red Sorghum" was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).

Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.

===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20).

It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25).

This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous.
=====1. Domestication=====
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.

======1.1. Annotation======
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:

E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)

Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)

In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.

In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word "的" is usually added to the person's last name. "上官家的" refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses "lady" to explain "的" here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:

E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)

Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)

“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi".

"八竿子拨拉不着" is equivalent to "Eight poles can’t be struck", which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of "Baganzi".
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.

======1.2. Addition======
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.

E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).

Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom "信马由缰" refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

======1.3. Omission======
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating.

E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).

Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of "The Ballad of Garlic", Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

======1.4. Substitution======
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:

E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)

Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)

The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart.

Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.

The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates "亲娘" into "mother", this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with "Mistress" using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

=====2. Foreignization=====
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.

======2.1. Transliteration======
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.

However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as "刘罗汉", and translate it into "Arhat Liu". Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of "Araht", so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:

E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)

Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)

“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.

======2.2. Literal Translation======
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition.

E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)

Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)

In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.

In this sentence, "癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉" is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)

===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20).

Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.

The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150).

However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.

However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work "Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks", believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment.

Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11).

Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201).

Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38).

However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40).

Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15).

Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007)

There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)

There are "third readers" in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to "fair readers" who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects.

For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.

The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.

With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to "go out".
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

===References===
*Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.

*Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.

*Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.

*Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56.

*Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29.

*Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Cao Shunying&Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183.

*Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.

*Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.

*Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.

*Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67.

*Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22.

*Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times.

*Liu Yunhong&Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17.

*Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.

*Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House.

*Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House.

*Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173.

*Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56.

*Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67.

*Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80.

*Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44.

*Wen Jun&Wang Xiaochuan&Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.

*Xu Jianping&Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39.

*Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127.

*Yan Yixun&Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203.

*Yin Lingwei&Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113.

*Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.

==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center>
===Abstract===
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.

Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization

===题目===
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用

===摘要===
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。

===关键词===
目的论，归化，异化

===Introduction===
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.

In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.

According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.

The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.

Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.

In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.

====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.

The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.

As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 Domestication====
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.

Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)

Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)

Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)

Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.

Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.

In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Foreignization====
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.

Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:

Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)

"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, ."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.

The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.

On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity". XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable.

Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.

If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind."
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)

“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors.

“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.

Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.

“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested."
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)

During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.

During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.

Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.

Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.

*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.

*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.

*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.

*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.

*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.

*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome.

*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.

*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.

*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.

*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．

*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．

*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press.

*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.

==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center>

===Abstract===
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.

Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation

===题目===
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究

===摘要===
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。

===关键词===
归化异化跨文化翻译

===Introduction===
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.

Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.

This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.

Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; Therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.

Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.

This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).

The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).

According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).

In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spreading of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24).

In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.

====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20).

Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).

Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).

In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42).

Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35).

Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21).

Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helping to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helping to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17).

Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169).

Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).

====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts.

Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).

As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture.

Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).

===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.

====2.1 The type of the text====
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.

Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39).

Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).

Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40).

These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles.

These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; Therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).

Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).

Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text for achieving the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42).

Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).

Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; On the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Readers of the target language====
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation.

The translator choosing translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor for influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization, so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.

Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; Therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.

In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297).

As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97).

Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.

====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.

Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).

Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).

For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.

Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).

Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.

====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.

Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104).

For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).

However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).

Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105).

For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).

Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105).

For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105).

Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304).

For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.

On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.

On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.

Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text.

Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers.

Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.

===References===
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*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center>

==='''Abstract'''===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.

===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''摘要'''===
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。

===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Key words'''===
Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy

===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''关键词'''===
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略

===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Introduction'''===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator.

The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.

===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===

====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====
====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.

Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".

Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term "Xiehouyu". --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The name "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）

The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.

In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.

In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）

However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''.

Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110)

According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang, 2000, 64)

Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）

In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)

''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）

The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）

In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin，2006，93)

The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)" omits the latter part "一场空 (all is empty)". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）

In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)

Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)

There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)

From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)

Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)

====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====
There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.

There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)

For example,
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)

It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)

The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.)
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)

(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)

For example,
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.)
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)

(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===

====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）

Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."

The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion".

In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively.

Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)

On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)

In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)

On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)

Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)

Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)

In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)

In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）

There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, “ 三个臭皮匠 —— 顶一个诸葛亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）

For example, “ 三个臭皮匠 —— 顶一个诸葛亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）

The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.

The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).

For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.

The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).

For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.

In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)

In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)

However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.

This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)

This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)

In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.

（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)

A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.1.1 Literal Translation====
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)

Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）

For example,
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)

The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)

In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.

In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.

For example,
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）

For example,
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.2.1 Free Translation====
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)

For example,
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)

（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)

（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)

（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)

Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)

For example,
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)

（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)

（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)

（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)

While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)

Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)

Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)

For example,
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)

Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)

When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）

When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2.4 Omission====
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)

Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)

For example,
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)

The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)

The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)

To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive.

In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.

In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.

The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.

However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.

However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.

In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.

Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Reference'''===

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5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.

6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.

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8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.

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13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.

14.Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]

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==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==

<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Abstract===
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms.

Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms.

The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.

===Key Words===
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation

===题目===
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化

===摘要===
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。

归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。

对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。

===关键词===
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译

===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.

====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15).
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15).

Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).

As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).

As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118).

The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).

Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).

Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language.

People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.

===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms===
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.

====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248).

In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908).

As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal".

These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.

====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture.

For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52).

For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).

For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24).

For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).

===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.

====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)

Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!

The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive.

她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.

The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader.

运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].

The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.

等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。

Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.

Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.

一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].

This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication.

The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).

English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).

====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)

Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him".

咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.

特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...

Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms.

匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)

Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)

In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid.

主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].

For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations.

Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).

====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"

梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".

耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor".

The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.

蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)

Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".

子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)

Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".

The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.

In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).

===Conclusion===
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18).

Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension.

Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning.

Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.

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*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.

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= '''Title Translation''' =

==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Abstract===
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements.

This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.

===Key words===
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.

===摘要===
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。

===关键词===
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。
===Chapter1 Introduction===
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.

And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.

Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.

===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===

====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences.

Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.

Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens.

The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings.

It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory.

The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.

The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.

(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.

(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.

(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.

People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.

(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins ").

According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.

These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function.

In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.

2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.

3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.

4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.

5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).

===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===

====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie.

For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.

Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.

The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end.

Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.

In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.

The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)

====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====

=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role.

Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.

And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.

"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)

=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept.

As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate.

Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).

====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language.

It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.

Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.

This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".

===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===

====4.1 Literal Translation====
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious.

For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)

====4.2 Free Translation====
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film.

When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)

====4.3 Transliteration====
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)

====4.4 Amplification and Omission====
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.

So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)

====4.5 Naturalization====
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film.

Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.

Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)

====4.6 Foreignization====
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.

The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save.

Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.

Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)

===References===
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.

[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103

[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.

[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.

[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.

[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.

[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.

[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.

[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.

[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.

[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.

[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.

== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==

<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.

==='''Key words'''===

English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods

==='''摘要'''===

随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。

==='''关键词'''===

英语电影片名翻译；目的论; 翻译方法

==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===

A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）

A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）

This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.

This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===

====2.1 Film Genres ====
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)

According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====

===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features=====
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）

Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features =====
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====

=====2.3.1 Informative Function =====
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)

The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)

A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function=====
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3.3 Vocative Function =====
A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).

A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)

According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===
====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====
Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)

Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）

Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29).

Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place".Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).

Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）

=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)

The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====

As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)".

As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.
All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)

Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====

=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）

A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)

For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====

=====4.2.1Transliteration=====
Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)

Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====
Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44)

Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）

A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107)

There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)

The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.

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Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.

Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33.

Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&129.

Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论

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Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/

==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center>

===Abstract===
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.

With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===key words===
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods

===商标翻译研究===

===摘要===
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。

===关键字===
商标翻译；原则；方法

===1. Introduction===
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application.

The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.

First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 Brand and Its Name====
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1)

According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Brand Name Translation====
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.

With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.

To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)

In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)

Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)

People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).

As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)

For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.

A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)

For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).

Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).

Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)

Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).

Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.The methods of brand name translation===

====3.1 Transliteration====
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)

Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Literal Translation====
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)

A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Free translation====
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)

Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).

However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 Combinative Translation====
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.

Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)

“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.5 Non-translation====
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).

Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)

On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.Conclusion===
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.

In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached:

First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.

First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.

Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.

Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
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[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.

[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9).

[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.

[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.

[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.

[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.

[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).

[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.

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[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html

[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html

[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732

='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=

==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center>
===Abstract===
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.

===Key word===
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory

===题目===
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译

===摘要===
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。

===关键词===
文化负载词，李清照，目的论

===Introduction===
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)

Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)

Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)

She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====

As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)

As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如梦令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点绛唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减字木兰花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采桑子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)

Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如梦令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点绛唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减字木兰花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采桑子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)

To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====

Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)

In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)

In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)

In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).

In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====

In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)

In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)

The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)

Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====

Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58).

Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)

====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====

=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====

Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)

For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)

Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)

Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====

Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)

=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====

The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)

=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====

Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)

Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====

Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)

===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===

Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)

Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====

(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）

I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)

O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)

Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)

(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）

I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)

I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)

In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)

In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====

(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)

I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)

I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)

The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)

(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)

My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)

I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)

Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree.
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)

====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====

(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)

The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)

People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)

Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)

Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)

The Double Ninth comes now again.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)

Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)

“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)

“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====

(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)

In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)

I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)

As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)

As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)

You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,

The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)

Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)

In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)

In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====

(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)

I look for what I miss;

I know not what it is.

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer.

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)

Search. Search. Seek. Seek.

Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.

Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)

Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149)

Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)

A grizzling wind and drizzling rain

—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)

Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao

—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)

In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)

===Conclusion===
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)

In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
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*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

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*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.

*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.

*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.

* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.

*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.

*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.

* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.

*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.

*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.

*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.

*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.

*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.

*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.

*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.

==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.

Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.

Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.

Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.

By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.

This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.

Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.

===Key Words===

domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words

===摘要===

《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。

沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。

通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。

因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。

===关键词===

归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词

===Chapter One Introduction===

With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used around the globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)

However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)

''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)

Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest to the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)

Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)

===Chapter Two Literature Review===

====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)

=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)

Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)

The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on a stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with a movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)

This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)

Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)

=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)

Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and the unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)

In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)

====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)

This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carrying in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)

In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)

From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.

To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words=====
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)

In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)

===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===

====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====3.1.1 Free Translation=====
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase=====
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）

1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)

The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.

====3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation====
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）

2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)

“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.

====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====3.2.1 Transliteration=====
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）

3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)

The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.

=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）

4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)

“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.

=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）

5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)

“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.

====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies====
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===

====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）

6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)

The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.

7a. 粉颈（沈复，2018：8）

7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)

In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.

======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）

8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)

This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.

====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）

9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)

“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.

10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）

10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)

“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.

=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）

11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)

The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.

=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）

12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)

In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.

13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）

13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)

“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.

===Chapter Five Conclusion===

Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)

In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)

In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)

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==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==

===Abstract===
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)

Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible.

This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication

idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===

===摘要===
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）

本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。

===关键词===
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化

=== Introduction===
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)

An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)

Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.

The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)

Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)

The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)

Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)

Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)

For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)

Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)

Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)

For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)

====2.3 Different religious beliefs====
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)

Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了

The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)

===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995).

Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105)

In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)

Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)

====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)

The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)

Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)

That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)

Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture.

====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)

Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)

For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)

Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)

Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)

However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)

For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)

Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)

One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12)

The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)

However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)

In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Bibliography===
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】

*He Fang 贺芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]

*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].

*Jiang Lei 蒋磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].

*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].

*Wang Tao 王涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].

*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].

*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].

*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20

*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==

===Abstract===
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.

As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===
proverbs; culture; translation strategies

===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===

===摘要===
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。

===关键词===
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法

===1. Introduction===
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.

Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.

With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.

Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization

===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===

====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)

Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)

1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most

Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)

1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home

In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003).

Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.It is said that proverbs in China dated back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)

====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”

1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs

Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language.

Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society.

What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)

1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs

As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning.

Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing.

Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)

From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.

====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====

It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms.

Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)

As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)

Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31)

In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.

===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===

====2.1 Definition of Culture====

As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” .

While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)

====2.2 Language and Proverb====

It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.

====2.3 Value and proverbs====

Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)

Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve.
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)

====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====

Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)

It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)

They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)

====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====

Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)

Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs.

In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)

Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation.

===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===

Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture.

The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)

====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====

Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor.

As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).

In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)

====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====

As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness.

As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before

In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)

For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture.

Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)

===4. Conclusion===

Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process.

Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation.

Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.

In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 15:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. References===
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*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.
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*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].
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*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .
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==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==

==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==
<center>解帆 Xie Fan</center>

==='''Abstract'''===
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.

On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.

On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.
==='''Key words'''===
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies

==='''摘要'''===
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。

一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。

==='''关键词'''===
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略

==='''Introduction'''===
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared.

Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.

===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===

Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.

1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms

Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.

Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.

Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.

Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.

The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated.

1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms

In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.

Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations.

We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.

The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.

With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.

===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===

As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.

2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory

Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).

In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.

2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory

The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.

2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression

Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression.

2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms

Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.

2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms

Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.

===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===

To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.
The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms.

Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.

Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.

Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.

3.1 Transliteration

Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.

Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play.

For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality.

3.2 Literal Translation

Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.

Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture.

In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.

Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.

3.3 Free Translation

Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.

Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.

==='''Conclusion'''===

The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers.

Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions.
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.

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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center>

===Abstract===

With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.

On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.

===Key Words===

Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies

===题目===

跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究

===摘要===

随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。

一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。

===关键词===

汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略

===Introduction===

With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared.

Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.

===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===

Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(the)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)

To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(space)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)

====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====

Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (delete that have been)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)

With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(inappropriate)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)

Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (add the following)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)

First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics"哥哥")--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)

Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (through)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)

Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (the following)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)

With new things coming in(springing up)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)

A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (updating)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)

The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(developing)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)

In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(one after another)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)

====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====

In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(their) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)

Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(various ways)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)

We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(such)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)

The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (For example,)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)

With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(increasingly strong) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)

===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===

As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (them and their)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）

====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====

Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (transending)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)

In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(construction)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)

Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (during translating)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)

In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(improved)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)

====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====

The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (also)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)

=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====

Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (following)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)

In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(expressions)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)

=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====

Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(with)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)

It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(delete above) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)

=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====

Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(contained)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)

For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (describes)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)

===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===

To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (employing)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)

Nowadays, it is common to see(observe)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)

Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(long)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)

Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (add to)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)

====3.1 Transliteration====

Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(readers)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)

For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and (has)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)

====3.2 Literal Translation====

Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(delete a process)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)

The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (ways)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)

In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(manifest)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)

====3.3 Free Translation====

Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(conveys) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)

For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (add to)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)

===Conclusion===

The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)

In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)

In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)

To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)

Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)

Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)

In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)

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='''Translation of Dish Names'''=

==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center>

=== Abstract ===

With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)

=== Keywords ===

Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence

=== 题目 ===
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译

=== 摘要 ===

中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。

=== 关键词 ===

中译英；中国菜名；功能对等

=== Introduction ===

As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)

It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)

The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)

And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)

=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===

Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)

Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)

Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)

They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)

=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===

(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names

Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)

As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)

Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)

Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13)

The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)

After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)

But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)

Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019，6）

(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds

The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)

Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)

Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)

夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)

=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===

Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)

Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)

The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)

Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)

In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126）

Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)

Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)

Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)

=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===

4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine

Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)

Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)

It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)

4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine

First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)

Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)

One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)

Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)

=== Conclusion ===

With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)

There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)

=== References ===

*Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du & Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.

*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.

*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.

*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.

*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.

*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.

*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.

*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].

*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].

*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.

*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].

*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].

*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.

*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].

--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 13:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center>
===Abstract===
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.

Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names

===题目===
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例

===摘要===
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。

===关键词===
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名

===Introduction===
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)

Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===

====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)

Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)

Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)

According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)

According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)

====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:

First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)

====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.

Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)

And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.

A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.

Informative Function

The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)

Aesthetic Function

If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)

If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Cultural Function

Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)

===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===

====2.1 Differences of Thinking====
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)

There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)

Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)

Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.

As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)

As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)

====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)

====2.5 Absence of Terms====
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)

====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)

Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)

Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)

The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)

In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)

In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)

The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)

The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)

The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)

====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)

====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)

Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)

Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)

This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)

Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.

A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.

===References===
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[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.

[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33

[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan Cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center>
===Abstract===
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.

===Key words===
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication

===题目===
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例

===摘要===
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用上述不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能扫除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。

===关键词===
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流

===Introduction===
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In modern society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape. However, at present we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to cross-cultural communication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)

中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。中国菜名含有丰富的文化与艺术特征，其体现了中国文化图景。然而，目前中国菜名译本众多，这不利于跨文化交流。

It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)

归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。

However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies. Therefore, in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)

然而，首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）

===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some Chinese English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)

中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，中国英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)

====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can't express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny.(Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。

For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn't reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, he knocked off the mud shell. The aroma overflowed, and it became a delicious dish. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。

Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)

又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)

====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is more vivid and can make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish.(Lin Hong 1991, 41)

目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。

There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotations of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)

“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)

====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)

中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。

For example, "onion soup in French style"(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, a snake is compared to a dragon, and a chicken to a phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)

比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。

The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don't understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)

“年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)

To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural connotations of dish names and using inappropriate translation methods. In this chapter I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduce the above two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)

以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)

===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===

====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book "Translator's Invisibility" according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30)

“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30)

Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation.（Su Songlonghua 2011）

归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。

Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text, which means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, to preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）

异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）

====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of reader-oriented characteristics domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement.(Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46)

谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。

On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communications, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)

另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。

Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)

因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）

Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, we should use habitual expressions of readers and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. (Su Songlonghua 2011)

从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变）。( 百度百科宿松龙华 2011)

===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===

====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)

As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)

=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)

Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)

=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)

There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)

According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)

According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)

====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)

=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)

“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)

In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)

=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)

Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。（张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)

=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)

The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)

====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)

As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)

=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====
以典故、传说命名的菜肴
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)

There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)

“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)

“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)

=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====
带地名和人名的菜名
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)

There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)

“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）

“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）

====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）

Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）

===Conclusion===
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)

Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛，张瑜 2009, 58)

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